are slightly bended into a Circular curve, so that the basket may be set upright on one of these edges near the right hand end of the hurdle, where it usually stands. The cloths are linen and dyed of a dark olive brown. Besides these implements, the workman is also provided with brown paper. The bowing commences by shovelling the materials towards the right hand parti tion with the basket, upon which, the workman holding the bow horizontally in his left hand, and the bow-pin in his right, lightly places the bow-string, and gives it a pluck with the pin. The string in its return, strikes part of the fur, and causes it to rise, and fly partly across the hurdle in a light open form. By repeated strokes, the whole is thus subjected to the bow, and this beating is repeated till all the original clots or masses of the filaments are perfectly opened and separated. The quantity thus treated at once, is called a batt, and never exceeds half the quantity required to make one hat. When the batt is sufficiently bowed, it is ready for hardening, which term denotes the first commencement of felting. The prepared material being evenly disposed on the hurdle, is first pressed down by the convex side of the basket, then covered with a cloth, and pressed successively in its various parts by the hands of the work man. The pressure is gentle, and the hands are very slightly moved backwards and forwards, at the same time, through a space of perhaps a quarter of an inch, to favour the hardening or entangling of the fibres. In a very short time, indeed, the stuff acquires sufficient firmness to bear careful handling. The cloth is then taken off, and a sheet of paper, with its corners doubled in, so as to give it a triangular outline, is laid upon the batt, which last is folded over the paper as it lies, and its edges, meeting one over the other, form a conical cap. The joining is soon made good by pressure with the hands on the cloth. Another batt, ready hardened, is in the next place laid on the hurdle, and the cap here mentioned placed upon it with the joining downwards. This last batt being also folded up, will consequently have its place of junction diametrically opposite that of the inner felt, which it must therefore greatly tend to strengthen. The principal part of the hat is thus put together, and now requires to be worked with the hands a considerable time upon the hurdle, the The basoning is followed by a still more The quantity of sulphuric acid added to the liquor is not sufficient rough to the tongue. In this liquor, heated to give a sour taste, but only renders it rather higher than unpractised hands could bear, the article is dipped from time to time, and then worked on the planks with a roller, and also by folding or rolling it certain degree of care is at first necessary up, and opening it again; in all which, a to prevent the sides from felting together; of which, in the more advanced stages of the operation, there is no danger. The imperfections of the work now present themselves to the eye of the workman, who picks out the knots, and other hard substances with a bodkin, and adds more felt upon all such parts as require strengthening. This added felt is patted down with a wet brush, and soon incorporates with the rest. The beaver is laid on towards the conclusion of this kind of working. Some workmen say that the beer grounds used with beaver hats, by rendering the liquor more tenacious, the hat is enabled to hold a greater quantity of it, for a longer time; but others say that the mere acid and water would not adhere to the beaver facing, but would roll off immediately when the article was laid on the plank. It is probable that the manufacturers who now follow the established prac. tice, may not have tried what are the inconveniences this addition is calculated to remove. The acid, no doubt, gives a roughness to the surface of the hair, which facilitates the mechanical action of felting. Nitrous acid is used in a process called carrotting; in this operation the material is put into a mixture of the nitrous and sulphuric acids in water, and kept in the digesting heat of a stove all night. The hair acquires a ruddy or yellow colour, and loses part of its strength. It must be remembered that our hat still possesses the form of a cone, and that the whole of the several actions it has undergone have only converted it into a soft flexible felt, capable of being extended, though with some difficulty, in every direction. The next thing to be done is to give it the form required by the wearer. For this purpose, the workman turns up the edge or rim to the depth of about an inch and a half, and then returns the point back again through the centre or axis of the cap, so far as not to take out this fold, but to produce another inner fold of the same depth. The point being returned back again in the same manner produces a third fold; and thus the workman proceeds until the whole has acquired the appearance of a flat circular piece, consisting of a number of concentric undulations or folds, with the point in the centre. This is laid upon the plank, where the workman, keeping the piece wet with the liquor, pulls out the point with his fingers, and presses it down with his hand, at the same time turning it round on its centre in contact with the plank, till he has, by this means, rubbed out a flat portion equal to the intended crown of the hat, In the next place he takes a block, to the crown of which he applies the flat central portion of the felt, and by forcing a string down the sides of the block, he causes the next part to assume the figure of the crown, which he continues to wet and work until it has properly disposed itself round the block. The rim now ap. pears like a flounced or puckered appendage round the edge of the crown, but the block being set upright on the plank, the requisite figure is soon given by working, rubbing, and extending this part. Water only is used in this operation of fashioning or blocking, at the conclusion of which it is pressed out by the blunt edge of a copper implement for that purpose. Previous to the dying, the nap of the hat is raised or loosened out with a wire brush, or carding instrument; the fibres being too rotten after the dying to bear this operation. The dying materials are logwood, and a mixture of the sulphates of iron and copper, known in the market by the names of green copperas and blue vitriol. The dyed hats are, in the next place, taken to the stiffening-shop. One workman, assisted by a boy, does this part of the business. He has two vessels, or boilers, the one containing the grounds of strong beer, which costs seven shillings per barrel, and is used in this and other stages of the manufactory as the cheapest mucilage which can be procured; and the other vessel containing melted glue, a little thinner than it is used by carpenters. The beer grounds are applied in the inside of the crown to prevent the glue from coming through to the face, and also to give the requisite firmness at a less expense than could be produced by glue alone. If the glue were to pass through the hat in different places, it might be more difficult to produce an even gloss upon the face in the subsequent finishing. The glue stiffening is applied after the beer-grounds are dried, and then only upon the lower face of the flap, and the For this purpose the inside of the crown. hat is put into another hat, called a stiffening hat, the crown of which is notched, or slit open, in various directions. These are then placed in a hole in a deal board, which supports the flap, and the glue is applied with a brush. The dry hat, after this operation, is very rigid, and its figure irregular. The last dressing is given by the application of moisture and heat, and the use of the brush and a hot iron, somewhat in the shape of that used by tailors, but shorter and broader on the face. The hat being softened by exposure to steam, is drawn upon a block, to which it is securely applied by the former method of forcing a string down from the crown to the commencement of the rim. The judgment of the workman is employed in moistening, brushing, and ironing the hat, in order to give and preserve the proper figure. When the rim of the hat is not intended to be of an equal width throughout, it is cut by means of a wooden or metallic pattern. The contrivance is very simple and ingenious. A number of notches are made in one edge of a flat piece of wood for the purpose of inserting the point of a knife, and from one side or edge of this piece of wood there proceeds a straight handle, which lies parallel to the notched side, forming an angle somewhat like a carpen. ter's square. When the legs of this angle are applied to the outside of the crown, and the board lies flat on the rim of the hat, the notched edge will lie nearly in the direction of the radius or line pointing to the centre of the hat. A knife being, therefore, inserted in one of the notches, it is easy to draw it round by leaning the tool against the crown, and it will cut the border very regular and true. This cut is made before the hat is quite finished, and is not carried entirely through, so that one of the last operations consists in tearing off the redundant part, which by that means leaves an edging of beaver round the external face of the flap. When the hat is completely finished, the crown is tied up in gauze paper, which is neatly ironed down. It is then ready for the subsequent operations of lining, &c. HATS are also made for women's wear, of chips, straw, or cane, by platting, and sewing the plats together; beginning with the centre of the crown, and working round till the whole is finished. Hats for the same purpose are also wove and made of horsehair, silk, &c. See STRAW hat. HATCHEL, or HITCHEL, a tool with which flax and hemp are combed into fine hairs. It consists of long iron pins, or teeth, regularly set in a piece of board. HATCHES, in a ship, a kind of trapdoors between the main-mast and fore-mast, through which all goods of bulk are let down into the hold. HATCHES also denote flood-gates set in a river, &c. to stop the current of the water; particularly certain dams or mounds made of rubbish, clay, or earth, to prevent the water that issues from the stream-works and tin-washes in Cornwall, from running into the fresh rivers. HATCHWAY, the place where the hatches are. Thus, to lay a thing in the batchway, is to put it so, that the hatches cannot be become at, or opened. HATCHING, the maturating fecundated eggs, whether by the incubation and warmth of the parent bird, or by artificial heat, so as to produce young chickens alive. The art of hatching chickens by means of ovens, has long been practised in Egypt; but it is there only known to the inhabitants of a single village named Berme, and to those that live at a small distance from it. Towards the beginning of autumn they scatter themselves all over the country, where each person among them is ready to undertake the management of an oven, each of which is of a different size, but in general they are capable of containing from forty to fourscore thousand eggs. The num ber of these ovens placed up and down the country is about three hundred and eighty. six, and they usually keep them working for about six months. As, therefore, each brood takes up in an oven, as under a hen, only twenty-one days, it is easy in every one of them to hatch eight different broods of chickens. Every Bermean is under the obligation of delivering to the person who intrusts him with an oven, only two-thirds of as many chickens as there have been eggs put under his care; and he is a gainer by this bargain, as more than two-thirds of the eggs usually produce chickens. In order to make a calculation of the number of chickens yearly so hatched in Egypt, it has been supposed that only two-thirds of the eggs are hatched, and that each brood corsists of at least thirty thousand chickens ; and thus it would appear that the ovens of Egypt give life yearly to at least ninety-two millions six hundred and forty thousand of these animals. HATCHMENT, in heraldry, a name sometimes used for an achievement, or escutcheon over a gate, door, or on the side of an house. HATCHMENT, also signifies the marshalling of several coats of arms in an escutcheon. HAUL the wind, in naval affairs, to direct the ship's course nearer to that point of the compass from which the wind arises. Example. If a ship sail south-west, with the wind northerly, and it is necessary to haul the wind farther to the westward; to perform this operation, it is necessary to arrange the sails more obliquely with her keel; to brace the yards more forward, and to haul the lower sheets farther aft, and finally to put the helm over the larboard. side of the vessel. When her head is turned directly to the westward, and her sails are trimmed accordingly, she is said to have hauled the wind four points, that is to say, from south-west to west. HAUTBOY, a musical instrument of the wind kind, shaped much like the flute, only that it spreads and widens towards the bottom, and is sounded through a reed. See MUSIC. HAW finch, in ornithology, the English name of a bird, known among authors by the name coccothraustes. See Aves, Plate VIII. fig. 6. HAWKERS and PEDLARS, are such dealers or itinerary petty chapmen who travel to different fairs or towns with goods or wares, and are placed under the controul of commissioners, by whom they are licensed for that purpose, pursuant to Stat. 8 and 9 William III. c. 25, and 29 George III. c. 26. Traders in linen and woollen, sending goods to markets and fairs, and selling them by wholesale; manufacturers selling their own manufactures, and makers and sellers of English bone-lace going from house to house, &c. are excepted out of the acts, and not to be taken as hawkers. HAWSER, in the sea-language, a large rope, or a kind of small cable, serving for various uses aboard a ship, as to fasten the main and fore shrouds, to warp a ship as she lies at anchor, and wind her up to it by a capstan, &c. The hawser of a man of war may serve for a cable to the sheet-anchor of a small ship. HAWSES, in a ship, are two large holes under the bow, through which the cables run when she lies at anchor. Thus the hawse-pieces are the large pieces of timber in which these holes are made. Hawsebags, are bags of canvass made tapering, and stuffed full of oakum; which are generally allowed small ships, to prevent the ship from washing in at these holes and hawse-plugs, are plugs to stop the hawses, to prevent the water from washing into the manger. : There are also some terms in the sea-language that have an immediate relation to the hawses. As "a bold hawse," is when the holes are high above the water. "Fresh the hawse," or veer out more cable, is used when part of the cable that lies in the hawse is fretted or chafed, and it is ordered that more cable may be veered out, so that another part of it may rest in the hawses. “Fresh the hawse," that is, lay new pieces upon the cable in the hawses, to preserve it from fretting." Burning in the hawse," is when the cables endure a violent stress. "Clearing the hawses," is disentangling two cables that come through different hawses. "To ride hawse-full," is when in stress of weather the ship falls with her head deep in the sea, so that the water runs in at the hawses. HAZARD, a game on dice, without tables. It is played with only two dice; and as many may play at it as can stand round the largest round table. Two things are chiefly to be observed, viz, main and chance; the latter belonging to the caster, and the former, or main, to the other gamesters. There can be no main thrown above nine, nor under five; so that five, six, seven, eight, and nine, are the only mains flung at hazard. Chances and nicks are from four to ten: thus four is a chance to nine, five to eight, six to seven, seven to six, eight to five; and mine and ten a chance to five, six, seven, and eight: in short, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten, are chances to any main, if any of these nick it not. Now nicks are either when the chance is the same with the main, as five and five, or the like; or six and twelve, seven and eleven, eight and twelve. Here observe, that twelve is out to nine, seven, and five; eleven is out to nine, eight, six, and five; and ames-ace and deuce-ace, are out to all mains whatever. But to illustrate this game by a few examples: suppose the main to be seven, and the caster throws five, which is his chance; he then throws again, and if five turn up, be wins all the money set him; but if seven is thrown, he must pay as much money as there is on the board: again, if seven be the main, and the caster throws eleven, or a nick, he sweeps away all the money on the table; but if he throws a chance, as in the first case, he must throw again : lastly, if seven be the main, and the caster throws ames-ace, deuce-ace, or twelve, he is out; but if he throws from four to ten, he hath a chance; though they are accounted the worst chances on the dice, as seven is reputed the best and easiest main to be flang. Four and five are bad throws (the former of which being called by the tribe of nickers, little dick-fisher) as having only two chances, viz. trey-ace and two deuces, or trey-deuce and quatre-ace: whereas seven hath three chances, viz. cinque-deuce, five-ace, and quatre-trey. Nine and ten are in the like condition with four and five; having only two chances. Six and eight have indeed the same number of chances with seven, viz. three; but experienced gamesters nevertheless prefer the seven, by reason of the difficulty to throw the doublets, two quatres, or two treys. It is also the opinion of most, that at the first throw, the caster hath the worst of it. On the whole, hazard is certainly one of the most bewitching and ruinous games played on the dice. Happy, therefore, the man who either never heard of it, or who has resolution enough to leave it off in time. See CHANCES and GAMING. HAZLE. See CORYLUS. HEAD. See ANATOMY. HEADBORROW, or HEADBOROUGH, the chief of the frank pledge, and he that had the principal government of them within his own pledge. He was called also burrowhead, bursholder, third-burrow, tithing-man, chief-pledge, or borrow-elder. He is now occasionally called a constable.. HEALTH, is a right disposition of the body, and of all its parts; consisting in a due temperature, a right conformation, just connection, and ready and free exercise of the several vital functions. The organ of hearing is the ear, and particularly the auditory nerve and membrane. See ANATOMY and PHYSIOLOGY. HEAT. The laws according to which the temperature of bodies is subject to increase or diminution, have been discussed in the articles Caloric, CapacitY, COLD, COMBUSTION, and CHEMISTRY. In the first of these articles, caloric was considered as a substance capable of passing from body to body, and subsisting in them in different states. This is the general doctrine of chemical philosophers: many of these, however, as well as others, incline to the hypothesis, that heat may consist in an undulatory or other intestine motion, either in the parts of bodies, or in some subtle fluid, or ETHER, which see. Among these, we may reckon Sir Isaac Newton, Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Young, and Count Rumford. "If heat,” says Dr. Young," when attached to any substance, be supposed to consist in minute vibrations, and, when propagated from one body to another, to depend on the undulations of a medium highly elastic, its effects must strongly resemble those of sound, since every sounding body is in a state of vibration; and the air, or any other medium, which transmits sound, conveys its undulation to distant parts, by means of its elasticity: and we shall find, that the principal phenomena of heat may actually be illustrated by a comparison with those of sound. The excitation of heat and sound are not only similar, but often identical; as in the operations of friction and percussion: they are both communicated sometimes by contact, and sometimes by radiation; for, besides the common radiation of sound through the air, its effects are communicated by contact, when the end of a tuningfork is placed on a table, or on the sounding-board of an instrument, which receives from the fork an impression that is after wards propagated as a distinct sound. And the effect of radiant heat, in raising the temperature of a body, upon which it falls, resembles the sympathetic agitation of a string, when the sound of another string, which is in unison with it, is transmitted to it through the air. The water, which is dashed about by the vibrating extremities of a tuning-fork dipped into it, may represent the manner in which the particles at the surface of a liquid are thrown out of the reach of the force of cohesion, and converted into vapour; and the extrication of heat, in consequence of condensation, may be compared with the increase of sound produced by lightly touching a chord which is slowly vibrating, or revolving in such a manner as to emit little or no audible sound; while the diminution of heat by expansion, and the increase of the capacity of a substance for heat, may be attributed to the greater space afforded to each particle, allowing it to be equally agitated with a less perceptible effect on the neighbouring particles. In some cases, indeed, heat and sound not only resemble each other in their operations, but produce precisely the same effects; thus, an artificial magnet, the force of which is quickly destroyed by heat, is affected more slowly in a similar manner, when made to ring for a considerable time; and an electrical jar may be discharged, either by heating it, or by causing it to sound by the friction of the finger." See the articles first mentioned. HEAT, animal. The temperature which animals, and even vegetables maintain during life, above that of surrounding objects, is a very striking phenomenon. By general analogies it has frequently been referred to the process of combustion; and from facts more distinctly pointed, the doctrine, that it depends upon the absorption of oxygen, has been advanced by modern chemists. But it is to Dr. Crawford we are indebted for a direct series of experiments, by which the nature of the process is directly made out. It would carry us too far into physiological disquisition, if we were to proceed to enquire respecting the nature of the parts, and the functions of organized beings. The blood which circulates through the lungs absorbs oxygen in the act of respiration, by means of which a portion of the carbon which it contains is acidified and carried off in the elastic state. After this, and perhaps other changes, the fluid passes through the arteries to the extreme vessels, depositing in some manner the elementary parts or principles of animal matter during the act of nutrition, in which state of still |