BOOKS FOR REFERENCE AND READING

Davis (Wm. S.)-The Roots of the War. (Century Co., 1918, 1.50.)-A clear survey of the historical and political origins of the war for the half-century previous to 1914. [Useful for Ch. 1.] Chéradame (A.)-The Pan-German Plot Unmasked. (Scribner, N. Y. City, 1918.)-The best account of the origin, growth and character of the German plan, by one of the few men who foresaw the war. [Useful for Chs. I, II.]

Archer (Wm.)-Gems of German Thought. (Doubleday, Page & Co., 1917, New York City.)

Out of their Own Mouths. (Appleton & Co., 1917-18, N. Y. City.). —These are the two best collections of quotations from leading Germans of every class, from Kaiser to business men, poets and priests, showing their plans, their character and attitude toward the rest of the world. [For additions to materials in Chs. I-III.] Collected Diplomatic Documents relating to the Outbreak of the European War. (G. H. Doran, N. Y. City.)-This contains the diplomatic "Books" of all colors, issued by the various powers who took part in the war to illustrate the way the war was brought on. [Useful for Ch. II.]

Willmore (J. S.)—The Great Crime and its Moral. (Hodder & Stoughton, 1917.)-An excellent summary, meaty and instructive, of the causes, origins, diplomatic documents of the war and of the German methods and atrocities. [Useful for Chs. 1-111.] N. Y. Times Current History.-The European War; volumes I-VIII, 1914-1918. It follows the war, month by month, in various ways, by editorials, quoted articles, historical and critical and anecdotic. It is regrettable that so unreasonably high a price should be asked for the set as to be almost prohibitive. The World's Almanac and Encyclopedia. (Press Publishing Co., N. Y. City, 1919.)-Excellent repertory of current facts. Good chronology of events of the war. Collection of diplomatic, political and economic documents. [For Chs. I-VIII.]

Gauss (Chr.)-Why We Went to War. (Scribner, 1918, 1.50.)Clear summary of the events leading up to the war, with documents, including study of German propaganda in America. [Ch. iv.]

War Cyclopedia. (U. S. Committee of Public Information).—A convenient alphabetic arrangement of facts and names prominent during the early part of the war.

War Relief Work. (Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, No. 168, 1918.)—An excellent review of the various agencies for war work, their system and activities. [For Chs. v, vi.]

Jones & Hollister.-The German Secret Service in America. (Small, Maynard & Co., Boston, 1919.)—A thorough narrative by a man who devoted himself for a whole year to this work. [Useful for Ch. IV.]

The Statesman's Year Book. (Macmillan's.) -A perfect mine of condensed and classified information regarding the geography, population, political, military and industrial organization, natural resources, occupations, social and religious facts, etc. of all nations. [Useful especially for Ch. vIII.]

Chéradame. The Essentials of an Enduring Victory. (Scribner, 1918.)-A good discussion of the kind of peace that would ensure against a new attempt by Germany at world conquest. Spargo (John).-Bolshevism. (Harper's 1918.)—Through study by a leading Socialist of the origins, history, theory, practice and results of Bolshevism. A splendid antidote. [Useful for Ch. x.]

THE WAR AND PEACE PROBLEMS

CHAPTER I.

HOW THE GOVERNMENT OF GERMANY, WITH AUSTRIA, PREPARED FOR THE WAR FOR

WORLD DOMINATION

Democracy versus Absolutism.-The central and decisive fact for every American in the great war is that it has been a struggle between the principles of the American Constitution, drawn and adopted by the American people under the leadership of Washington in 1787-9, and the principles of the Constitution of the Imperial German Government, imposed on Germany in 1871 by Bismarck, creator of the German Empire.

The American Constitution put into operation the principles of the Declaration of Independence, which insured to every individual freedom of self-determination. The triumph of these principles in our Revolutionary war helped to bring on the French Revolution, awoke the English people to the liberties they now enjoy, and started a swelling tide which (after further victories in 1848) had succeeded, before 1871, in destroying autocracy in every European land but four-Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Russia. In Russia a despotic Czar was supreme, ruling through an organized bureaucracy. In Austria-Hungary the Emperor was face to face with eleven conflicting nationalities, in a dual monarchy, increasingly threatened with disruption. In Prussia, there were left both the two great medieval elements of despotism, a King claiming to rule by divine right, supported by the other element, a strongly organized privileged class, the Junkers. Under them was a people who, in 1849, after failing to gain liberties such as the peoples of France and England enjoyed, had accepted their fate. When Prussia, helped by the other German States, conquered France in 1870-71, annexing Alsace-Lorraine, all Germany accepted the overlordship of Prussia, with her King as Emperor. The autocracy of Prussia was thus extended to all Germany. Prince Bismarck, the man of "blood and iron," who had for many years, as Prussian Chancellor, planned this empire, set out to organize in Central Europe a government that would not only continue both the divine right of Kings and the power of a privileged class and thus stem the rising tide of democracy, but would by its ever increasing power, eventually overthrow democracy.

Since 1871, these two principles have been face to face-democracy and absolutism. They could not continue to exist side by side. They must come in collision. Bismarck knew this. We did not. Neither did the free nations of Europe.

German World Domination.-The self-governing countries of Europe and America, because they believed that the government of Germany was not their concern and therefore did not watch its actions carefully, inevitably made it possible for Germany to launch the world war. We did not understand that lust for world domination is the logical and necessary impulse that governs an autocracy assisted by an ambitious privileged class, and that this lust can be

gratified only by war to the utmost against all self-governing lands, in order to crush all opposition to the universal spread of despotism. This idea of world domination could be carried out only after long preparation and by carefully arranging two necessary elements of support for the Prussian Kaiser and his Junkers. These were, first, the absolute, unanimous support of the German people, and, second, the cooperation of as many other powers as would share in the scheme. To obtain this support was the constant Prussian aim for about forty years. To attach the German people to the Kaiser and to Pan-Germanism a complete system of education was worked out, shortly after 1871. It began from earliest childhood to make the Germans worship the State as their god; and to fill them with the idea that God's plan was that Germany should dominate the world because the German people were the greatest, wisest, noblest, and best creation of God.

Alliance of the Three Autocracies.-While this educational process was being carried on, the same care was being given to the external political field. Bismarck and Emperor William, grandfather of the late Kaiser, first sought an alliance, after 1871, with the Czar of Russia and the Emperor of Austria, so as to form a Triple Alliance of the three autocracies. Austria, cowed by her defeat by Prussia in 1866 and by Prussia's victory over France, was ready to allow Germany to dictate her foreign policy. As long as Bismarck guided Germany he tried to hold Russia at Germany's side, but after the Czar had helped, in 1875, to prevent Germany from attacking France, it became Germany's plan to weaken Russia, by preventing the development of Slav power both inside and outside of Russia.

In 1877 Russia attacked Turkey to avenge the Bulgarian massacres and to realize her dream of conquering Constantinople and opening up for herself and all Slavs a great water highway through the Dardanelles. But Germany and Austria united to snatch the fruits of victory from Russia at the Congress of Berlin, in 1878. This treaty restored power to Turkey but placed under Austrian control the two important provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, though their inhabitants were Serbian Slavs who were bitterly opposed to Austrian rule, and wished to be united with Serbia. Four independent Balkan States were recognized: Serbia, Bulgaria, Rumania, and Greece, besides tiny Montenegro; but only one of these, Serbia, had a native King, and her territory was confined within disappointingly narrow boundaries and without outlet to the sea. It was planned to bring Bulgaria, Rumania, and Greece under German influence through rulers of German blood or affiliations. Alexander of Battenberg was sent to rule Bulgaria. A Hohenzollern was king of Rumania. And the Crown Prince of Greece, after a military training in Germany, was married (1889) to the Princess Sophia, sister of the Kaiser.

Germany Courts Turkey.-Having thwarted and humiliated Russia, Germany was obliged, soon after 1878, to turn elsewhere for alliances. This she did in two directions: Turkey and Italy. She needed Turkey's assistance in her plan to help Austria push eastward from Bosnia as far as the great seaport of Salonica; in order that she might herself, across Austrian and Turkish territory, obtain a land route to Asia, and by controlling the East as well as Europe, obtain world domination. This plan was, however,

a gradual growth, and notwithstanding the Kaiser's triumphant journey (1898) to Constantinople, Syria, and Jerusalem when he assured "the 300,000,000 Mohammedans" and the Sultan that he was their friend and protector, the wily Sultan Abdul Hamid would not sign an actual treaty of alliance, though he had allowed German officers, in 1883, to train the Turkish army.

Italy Joins the Central Powers.-Meantime, in 1882, Germany persuaded Italy to take the place of Russia and to join her and Austria-Hungary in a new defensive Triple Alliance. Bismarck accomplished this miracle, notwithstanding Italy's hatred of Austria, by playing on Italy's wish for colonies in Africa and sowing discord in this way between her and France and England. In 1881 France had occupied Tunis at the suggestion of Bismarck. Now, Italy had planned to make of Tunis an Italian colony, and considered herself betrayed by France. Then in 1882 England decided to remain permanently in Egypt. Italy, humiliated, remembering that Bismarck had told her Germany was content that she should have Tunis, decided to join the Central Powers. This required her to leave in Austrian hands her unredeemed provinces (Trieste and Trentino). Her treaty was for five years, renewable at will. It delivered Italy to German exploitation and pacific penetration, as Italy was poor and therefore a fertile field for propaganda. The treaty was periodically renewed, the last time in 1912.

Behind the protecting screen of the alliance with Italy, which ensured Germany and Austria against attack, Germany pushed her preparations for the future conflict. She kept France continually terrorized by threats of war, she penetrated the Balkans with a German railroad, she projected and partly built the great line from Constantinople across Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to the Persian Gulf. She promised, in return for an alliance, that Turkey should get Egypt back from England, together with parts of Armenia from Russia. She helped Turkey crush Greece. She kept the Balkans in a turmoil.

The Triple Entente.-Meanwhile what were France, England, and Russia doing? They did not suspect the extent of the growing ambitions of Germany's leaders, tremendously enlarged when William II. came to the throne in 1888, and they thus fell in with the plans of the Pan-Germans, already fully worked out. These three powers were still apart, in isolation, and often at cross purposes. But after Russia had again (1887) prevented Germany from attacking France, and had found Germany would no longer supply her with the loans she needed to develop her vast resources, she turned to France, who began in 1888 to lend her enormous sums. This led in 1892 to an agreement between France and Russia, based on the principle of reciprocal assistance and simultaneous mobilization of armies in case of attack. This convention was concluded in 1893. It was a purely defensive alliance. It was this agreement which bound France to go to war with Germany whenever Russia was attacked. This remained a dual alliance until 1904, when England joined it, and this new union between the three powers was called the Triple Entente, because it was in the nature of an understanding rather than a formal and detailed alliance.

Meanwhile each of these three powers, France, Russia, and England, now united in a common policy, was trying to be reconciled to Italy and wean her from the Central Powers. Italy, having lost

her chance to get Tunis, planned to annex Tripoli, the only remaining part of the African coast not already taken from the Turks. This involved a probable war with Turkey. To aid her in this plan, she obtained a promise of England's protection against a naval attack on the Mediterranean-which meant a French attack. Also she came later to an understanding with France which culminated in 1902 and 1904, thus making her free to loosen the bonds with the Central Powers if she chose, though Germany was continually forging new financial, commercial, and political chains for her, including control of her leading politicians. Germany was doing the same in Russia, in order to make Russia helpless in case of war.

During this time none of the Entente powers realized either the extent or the character of the danger. England regarded Lord Roberts' insistent campaign in favor of national armament against the German peril as the vapid ravings of a senile jingo, and none but a few clear-eyed men like the Hungarian-born Emil Reich, the Frenchman Chéradame, the Englishman Cramb, and the Belgian Sarolea suspected the completeness of the German scheme for enslaving the world and destroying civilization. So little suspicious was Lord Grey, Great Britain's foreign minister, that in 1912, he agreed to let Germany consider the whole of Mesopotamia as within Germany's sphere of influence, a dangerous concession which only whetted Germany's Eastern ambitions, as it gave her final control of the whole line of the Berlin-Bagdad Railroad.

The Kaiser's Three Threats of War (1905-1911).-What now, were the outstanding facts, that bear on the war, in the ten years between 1904, when England joined the Entente, and the outbreak of the war in 1914?

First came the Kaiser's sudden demonstration at Tangier, on the African coast, in March, 1905, by which for the first time he claimed for Germany a share in the Mediterranean, and threw down the gauntlet to France, to see whether England would support the latter, at the same time, under threat of war, forcing the humiliating resignation of the able French Foreign Minister, Delcassé. In the conference of the powers on this Moroccan question at Algesiras in January, 1906, not only England but Italy acted against Germany. The second threat was when Germany revenged herself by threatening war on Russia if she should interfere when Austria broke the treaty of Berlin by annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908-1909) of which until then she had been merely the mandatory. This embittered Italy, who turned more and more to the Entente. The third war threat came in 1911, when the Kaiser sent the "Panther" to Agadir and reopened the Morocco question. Out of this Germany again learned that England stood with France, but she obtained from France by her threats of war a large African colony in the Congo. England and France made every possible concession to avoid a European war.

Italy Fights Turkey.-Italy was now afraid that Germany might also take Tripoli, so (still in 1911) Italy attacked and annexed Tripoli and made war on Turkey.

First Balkan War.-For the Balkan powers (Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, Greece) this seemed an opportunity to attack Turkey before she should conclude peace with Italy. The "Young Turks"