called the New Passage, on the Gloucestershire side of the Severn, the Lias is divided into-an upper mass of strata resting on marlstone bed, and a lower series of shales resting on limestone and shells. In the upper mass, many remains of insects and plants are found mingled with marine shells; but in the lower series, these are still more abundant. One band, about one foot thick, is called "the insect limestone," which contains in a well-preserved state the wings and the eyes of beetles, which must have been drifted to the sea by either wind or river. All this shows that dry land was not far off. 4. The bottom of the Liassic Ocean was covered with numerous plant-like Encrinites, especially those of the genus Pentacrinus, like that of No. 15, in fig. 7, of our last lesson. 5. During the liassic period, the sea abounded with animals, such as Terebratula and Spirifera, which had swarmed in the oceans of preceding periods, the Carboniferous, the Devonian, and even the Silurian. 6. The structure and size of the insects, such as beetles, dragon-flies, grasshoppers, etc., imply that the lands of the Lias period had a temperate climate; yet there are other organic remains associated with these that clearly indicate an ocean near the tropics. LESSONS IN GREEK.-No. XXXIX. BY JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. DEVIATIONS. νενευκά. νεω, 1 sim, fut. νευσομαι oι νευσοῦμαι, aor. ένευσα, perf. TλEW, I sail, fut. Tλevoouai, commonly evooupaι, aor. εжλevoα, perf. TETEVкa, peri. mid. or pass. Teλevoμai, aor. pass. επλευσθην. πνεω, I breathe, blow, fut. πνευσομαι οι πνευσοῦμαι, aor. επνευσα, perf. πεπνευκα, perf. mid. or pass. πεπνευσμα, aor. pass. επνευσθην. Remark that pew, I flow, has fut. puncoμai, aor. Eppuny, perf. Also Xew, pour out, deviates from the foregoing; fut. xew, aor. Exea, perf. KEXUкa, fut. mid. xeoμat, aor. mid. Exεaunv; perf. mid. or pass. Kεxuμaι, aor. pass. exvony, fut. pass. xv0nooμai. ερρυηκα. The following Verbs, in addition to the Common Future in copat, have a form in oouua; this circumflexed Future is called the Doric. THE DORIC FUTURE. pevy-w, I flee, fut. pevcoupaι, also pevžoμai. Tail-w, I play, fut. raižovai, also raižoμai. πιπ-τω, I fall, fut. πεσοῦμαι. See the verbs, κλαίω, πλέω, πνέω, νεω, and θεω, just spoken of. The following pure and impure verbs, which, by the assumption of an e as characteristic, pass into the analogy of pure verbs in their transformations, have independent forms for the subjunctive Perfect, and optative-Pluperfect, middle or passive. κτα-ομαι, I acquire; perf. KEKтημаι, I possess; subj. KEKтwμaι, ᾖ, ῆται; plupt. εκεκτημην, I possessed, opt. κεκτῳμην, ᾠο, στο οι κεκτημην, κεκτηο, κεκτητο. (MNA), I remember; the forms will be given shortly. Special peculiarities in the formation of some Verbs, both pure and Kaλew, I name, perf. KERλnpai, I am called, I bear the name; impure,-strengthened stems. plupf. εκείνη την, opt. κεκλημην, το, το. VERY many active Verbs form the Future with the middle form, as ακούω, I hear, fut. ακουσομαι, aor. ηκουσα; απανταω, I meet with, fut. απαντησομαι, aor. απηντησα; απολαύω, Ι enjoy, fut. απολαυσομαι, aor. απελαυσα, etc. The following Verbs in aw and Ew, whose stem originally SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS, Some verbs, in some of their forms, throw out the stemvowel, which stands between two consonants. This ejection is termed Syncope: thus eyeipw, I awake, transitively (the Aorist 294 167egular, as ηγειρα) verf. 1. εγηγερία, I have awakened; perf. 2. εγρηγορα, I am αuake ; plupt. 2. εγρηγορείν, I awoke (intransitive); aor. mid. ηγρόμην, I awoke (intransitive): πετομαι, 1 fy, fut. πτησομαι, aor. επτόμην, inf. πτεσθαι. By metathesis is meant the displacement of a vowel by a liquid. Thus in τετμηκα, 1 have cut, from τέμνω, the liquid μ has taken the place of the vowel &, which is lengthened into η; so in πτησομαι, from πετομαι, I fly; and so in βεβληκα, from βαλλω, as appears in these instances, βαλλω, Ithrow, fut. βαλῶ, aor. εβαλον (ΒΑΛ), perf. βεβληκα; perf. mid. or pass. βεβλημαι; aor. pass. εβλήθην, fut. pass. βληθησομαι, fut. 3. βεβλήσομαι. δαμάζω, I tame, fut. δαμασω, aor. εδαμασα (ΔΜΑ), perf. δεδμη κα; perf. mid. or pass. δεδμημαι; aor. pass. εδμηθην, εδάμην. καλεω, I call, fut. καλώ, aor. εκαλεσα, perf. κεκληκα; perf. mid, or pass. κεκλημαι, fut. 3. κεκλησομαι, aor, pass. εκληθην; fut. mid. καλοῦμαι, aor. εκαλεσάμην. καμνω (Lat. laboro), I labour, I am in trouble, aor. 2. εκάμον. fut. καμοῦμαι, perf. κεκμηκα. τεμνω, I cut, aor. 2. ετεμον, fut. τεμώ, perf. τετμηκα; mid. I cut something for myself, perf. mid. or pass. τέτμημαι, aor. pass. ετμήθην, fut. 3. τετμησομαι. Τιμωρία, ας, ή, punishment, revenge. Ανεμος, ου, ο, wind. Όπλον, ου, τo, armour. Αυριον, to-morrow. REMARKS. ανδρασι, the dative for the genitive with ύπο. ὁ καθ ̓ ἡμας βιος, our age. μη καμων, if you do not labour. How do you explain the formation of ετμήθη? What is the derivation, and what the person, mood, and tense of κεκτηνται ? οι εκπλευσεῖται? οἱ απεκτειναν? οἱ ηλπισαν? οἱ ανεπαυσαντο οι εγρηγορεσαν EXERCISES.-GREEK-ENGLISH. Ανεμος Η στρατια αυριον εκπλεύσεται (εκπλευσεῖται). Εν τη ναυμαχία τη Βορράς εναντιος τη στρατιά επνευσεν. εν κολπῳ Κρισαιῳ οἱ Πελοποννησιοι ανδρας των Αθηναίων Οταν οἱ πολεμιοι τη απεκτειναν, όσοι μη εξενευσαν αυτών. πολει πλησιασωσιν, οἱ στρατιώται αναρπάσαντες τα όπλα Πολλοις και σοφοις ανδρασι θευσονται προς τας πύλας. κεκλαυσται τἀνθρωπινα, τιμωριαν ἡγουμενοις είναι τον βίον. Τίς ουκ αν κλαύσειε τον φίλον ατυχῆ ; Οἱ πολῖται ηλπισαν τους πολεμίους φευξεῖσθαι. Οἱ παῖδες σφαιραν παιξοῦνται. Σωκράτης πολλακις επαισεν ἅμα σπουδάζων. Συγκεχυκε νυν την πίστιν ὁ καθ' ἡμας βιος. Οἱ πολέμιοι τας των Ελλήνων τάξεις συνεχεαν. Οἱ κεκμηκότες στρατιώται ανεπαυσαντο. Ουκ αν μη καμων ευδαι μονοίης. Αττική ύπο των Περσων ετμήθη. Ηρακλης το ροπαλον, ὁ εφορές, αυτός ετέμεν εν Νεμέα. Ούς οἱ πολλοι πλουσιους λεγουσι, κέκτηνται κτήματα, ά και κακος τις κεκτῇτ' αν. Οι νόμοι δια τον στρατιώται πάσαν την νυκτα εγρηγορεσαν. Οι πολεμον συγκεχυμένοι εισιν. Οἱ πολέμιοι την πολιν κατέκαυσαν Αἱ εν Λυδια Σάρδεις ύπο των Ελληνων κατεκαύθησαν. The army sailed away. The army sails away. The army will VERBS IN @ WITH THE PRESENT STEM STRENGTHENED. We have already seen that the Present stem of several Verbs is strengthened; which strengthening, however, does not extend by a consonant, and the lengthening of the stem-vowel, there beyond the Present and Imperfect. Besides the strengthening are others which must now be set forth. Let it be premised that all the forms which are assumed in order to explain the formation of the parts, are printed in Capitals. The syllable, which stands in parenthesis, shows that the form arises according to the analogy of the verbs in μι, of whose conjugation we shall treat by-and-bye. Deponentia, or Deponent Verbs, are those which want the active form, appear only in the middle voice, and have a reflective or intransitive signification. 1. Verbs whose pure stem in the Present and Imperfect is strengthened by the insertion of v before the termination. Observe that βαινω, lengthens the stem-vowel a into αι, and πίνω, ĭ into i. ελαύνω, a into αν, (α) βαινω, I step, I go, (BA), fut. βησομαι, perf. βέβηκα, aor. εβην (με); passive in compounds, as παραβαινομαι, perf. mid. or pass. παραβεβᾶμαι, aor. pass. παρεβαθην. (5) ελαύνω, I drive, (a chariot), (ΕΛΑ), fut. ελῶ, ᾶς, ᾶ, inf. (ε) πινω, I drink, fut. πιομαι, aor. επιον imperat. πιθι, (ε) φθάνω, I go before, I anticipate, fut. φθησομαι (more Here belongs a verb whose pure stem ends in a consonant: δακνω, I bite, aor. ἐδάκον, fut. δηξομαι, perf. act. δεδηχα; perf. mid. or pass. δεδηγμαι, aor. pass. εδηχθην. We have seen that liquid verbs take the same strengthening. 2. Verbs whose pure stem in the Present and Imperfect, w strengthened by the introduction of the syllable ve before the termi nation. (α) βύ-νε-ω, I stop up, I fill up, (with gen.), fut. βύσω, aor. εβύσα, perf. mid. or pass. βεβυσμαι, inf. βεβυσθαι, aor. pass. εβυσθην. (δ) αφικνεομαι, I arrive, fut. αφιξομαι, aor. 2. αφικομην, αφικού, αφίκεσθαι, perf. αφιγμαι, inf. αφιχθαι, plupt. αφιγμην, αφίξο, etc. (α) ὑπισχνεύομαι, I promise, aor. ὑπεσχόμην, imper. ὑποσχου ; fut. ὑποσχήσομαι, perf. υπεσχημαι; 80 αμπισχνεομαι οι αμπεχομαι, I wear, I have on, fut. αμφεξομαι, aor, ημπισχόμην and ημπεσχόμην. VOCABULARY. LESSONS IN ITALIAN. ExBaivw, I go out, turn out, | Evdaiμovew, I am happy. that is, prove or become. Συμβαινω, I go with, go together; ovußaive, it happens. ATEλavvw, I drive away. Eğeλavvw, I drive out. ExTIVO, I drink out, I drink up. Συμπίνω, together. ATоTIW, I atone for, pay for, revenge. 1 drink with, Εφικνεομαι, (with gen.) I Σπαρτη, ης, ή, Sparta. Λυκούργος, ον, ὁ, Lycurgus. REMARKS, ETC. Why is συνεβεβηκει, in the singular number? What is its tense, mood, and person? What is there peculiar in its root Bau? Give the person, tense, mood, and root of exßnoy. Explain the form απελήλαται; also πεπωκεναι. know any word like its theme? Do you What part of the Verb is εκπιομαι? ε00аσav QuyoνTεs, anticipated flying, that is, outstripped them in fight, got before them in flight, in this sense plavw, as here, takes a participle after it. This is the sense in which St. Paul's words (1 Thess. iv. 15.) "shall not prevent them which are asleep," (prevent from the Lat. præ, before, and venio, I come, go,) shall not be (or go up to heaven) before, ov μn 0αoшμεν тоνs κοιμηθέντας. και αρχών. EXERCISES.-GREEK-ENGLISH. Τοις στρατιώταις εν τη στρατιᾳ πολλα κακα συνεβεβήκει. Σοφοις ὁμιλῶν και αυτος εκβηση σοφος. Λυκουργος πολυτέλειαν εξήλασε της Σπάρτης. Περσων ουδεις απελήλαται νόμῳ τιμων Πολλοι συμπιοντες ἁπαξ γιγνονται φίλοι. Ουκ εκπιομαι τον οινον. μεθυων δουλος εστι του πεπωκέναι. Ο οίνος ύπο των στρατιωτων εξεποθη. Τους κακούργους οἱ θεοι Οἱ πολιται τους πολεμίους έφθασαν εις την πολιν φυγοντες. Κυων δήξεται τον δάκοντα. Ὁ λαγως ύπο του κυνος εδηχθη. Ὁ ταλαρος νηματος βεβυσται. Οι πρεσβεις εις την πολιν αφίκοντο. Ουτοι γ' εφιξη των άκρων ανευ πόνου. Ο φιλος ύπεσχετο μοι αφίξεσθαι. Αι γυναικες ημπέσχοντο καλα ἱματια. αποτισαιντο. ENGLISH-GREEK. The woman wore beautiful garments. The woman will wear The beautiful garments. The friends promised to come. The dogs will bite the biter. baskets are full of yarn. The general got into the city before his foes. The gods punish evil-doers. O gods, punish evil-doers. O that Apollo would punish that evil-doer. Many friends drank together. Friends drinking together become enemies. Many evils happened to my children as they came (coming) hither. The citizens are not excluded from honours. | participle formed? What is the Present? How is the Present strengthened? Eiλnpora, having received, that he had received, the participle is required after αισθόμενος; whence is ειληφοτα ? Aixμaλwrog, ov, ò a captive; explain the derivation of yeyovoros, who had become; what participle? whence? explain the formation. Euot, literally to me; this is called the dativus ethicus, or the dative of feeling, as it means more than it expresses; here, "if you will listen to me, sell your shield and buy a ship :" whence arodos and wр? what are the parts? Karalnoais, you may pass your days, (kara and Law). What part of the verb is it ? Ομοιως, as you have done. Κατηγόρεω (κατα and αγορεύω), with gen. of the person, accusing or having accused. To the Spartans who accused the Thebans of many serious misdeeds, Epaminondas said, "Yes," truly they made you give up your brevity of speech; βραχυλογοῦντας, the participle after επαυσαν. Epaminondas thus reproachfully alluded to the well-known conciseness (Laconism) observed by the Lacedæmonians in their speech, and at the same time intimated that the Thebans had taken from comes επαυσαν? them the sovereignty ( nyepovia) of Greece. Explain the formation of βραχυλογοῦντας. Whence What part part of the verb? What does the middle voice signify? Пolλa kaι μɛyaλla, literally, many and great: we say many great things. LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. XXVII. By CHARLES TAUSENAU, M.D., Of the University of Pavia, and Professor of the Italian and German EXERCISES.-ENGLISH-ITALIAN. PLEASANT words are suspicious in the mouth of a haughty man. Who has been here. The brothers of the young merchant have been here to see whether you were at home. They asked I said that you are in the theatre. Where where you were. have they been? They have been a long time in the country honoured and esteemed by all. When were thy parents with |They never were discourteous, for this reason they were thy uncle Last Monday, they had gone there before sunI should have gone there with them if I had not been | ill. Live (ye) as though you were old, that you may not repent of having been young. Be kind, but be not too credulous and incautious, or else thou wilt be deceived. They say that the courier has already returned from Paris, but I doubt it, Everybody would unless the weather has been favourable. be wise, if follies committed could always be remedied. It is easy indeed to say: "I am contented;" but it is difficult to be so. set. Sweet, pleasant, dól-ce In the mouth, in bóc-ca At home, in cd-sa VOCABULARY. They asked, do-man-da-ro-no Where, dó-ve I said, dis-si A long time, un pezzo Esteemed, sti-má-to There, vi Gone, ar-ri-vá-to (with essere) Before, a-van-ti Sunset, il tra-mon-tár del só-le Gone, an-da-to (with essere) With them, con ló-ro Ill, am-ma-la-to Live, vi-vé-te As though, có- mẹ sẽ That you may not repent, af fi-ne di non pen-tir-vi má-i Young, gió-vane Kind, u-md-no Hast thou my penknife? No, I have it not. Thy sister had it just now. Thou art right and he is wrong. What was the matter with your brother? He was in a bad humour. That is true, he had the toothache, and his sisters had the headache; they had danced too much. The Count had much money, and now he is poor. Why is he no longer rich? Because he was not economical. Thou wilt have fine weather to-morrow for thy journey. I do not think so, we shall probably have a thunder storm. I shall have a new travelling dress, the tailor will bring it me to-morrow. Be patient and thou wilt have all that thou wishest. Be (ye) regular in your affairs and you will have greater satisfaction. Many have indeed too much, still nobody believes he has enough. It appears to me that thou hast no perseverance in thy good intentions. Some will maintain that he has not the necessary knowledge. I doubt whether he has had what he says. To obtain this, it will be necessary that you have good friends. If he had good books, he would have the means to employ himself in an agreeable manner. If you had more courage and precaution, you would have a better lot. If thou hadst not had good recommendations, thou wouldst not have had the advantage of obtaining the desired place so soon. Penknife, tem-pe-ri-no No, no VOCABULARY. It, lo (before the verb) Just now, poc' án-zi (or pô-co pri-ma) Right, ra-gió-ne (aver ragione, to be right) Wrong, tor-to (aver torto, to Bad humour, cat-tí-vo u-mó-re Toothache, do-lór di dên-ti Too much, trop-po Now, a-dês-so (or ó-ra) - because, per-chè No longer, non più (putting non before the verb and più after it) Rich, ric-co Economical, e-cô-no-mo Fine weather, bêl têm-po Journey, vidg-gio I do not think so, nol cré-do Probably, pro-ba-bil-mén-te Thunderstorm, tem-po-rá-le New, nuô-co Travelling-dress, a-b-to da viág-gio Tailor, sar-tó-re (or sár-to) There are moments when one must listen more to courage than to prudence. There are few heroes who maintain their character up to their old age. There is no felicity which is not liable to the attacks of envy. Five leagues from Marseilles there are high mountains which, for the greatest part, are covered with pines. There are statues which one would not give away for a hundred thousand dollars, and an infinite number of wretched men one would sell for very little. There is no means of convincing an obstinate blockhead. There will always be men who will oppose evident truths; how many of them are there not now-a-days! There was once a philosopher who maintained that there is no greater good than a sound mind in a sound body. Hugens maintains that there are inhabitants in the moon. Are there fine environs and beautiful prospects here? There are many who think that the Italian language can be learnt in three months comfortably; and these same persons, after a study of six months, cannot even say: "I have written just now-It has struck ten o'clock just now-I should much like to know accurately, etc." VOCABULARY. Moment, mo-mén-to (or i-stánte) When one must listen more, dó-ve si dê-e più a-scol-tá-re (accus.) Courage, co-rág-gio Prudence, pru-dên-za Regular, re-go-lá-to (plur.) Greater satisfaction, mag-giór sod-dis-fa-zió-ne Many, mól-ti ni-mén-to Some (in the sense of several), al-cu-ni go-no Their, il (la, i, le) ló-ro Character, ca-rát-te-re Up to, si-no a Old age, vec-chid-ja | Obstinate, o-sti-ná-to (or testár-do) Men, per-só-ne Will oppose, si op-pón-go-no Evident, e-vi-dên-te Maintained, so-ste-né-va No, non (before vi or ct and Body, côr-po the verb) Felicity, fe-li-ci-tà Sound, sá-no,-a Hugens, U-gé-nio Maintains, so-stiê-ne Moon, lu-na Here, qui Which is not liable, che non Inhabitant, a-bi-tán-te Fine environs, con-tór-no a-mêno (pl.) Prospect, ve-du-ta (or pún-to di Same person, me-dé-si-mo A study of six months, sê-i mé-si di stu-dio Cannot even, non san-no nep·· pú-re Say, di-re Written, scrit-to Just now, poc' án-zı It has struck, só-no suo-ná-te Ten o'clock, le die-ci Just now, in qué-sto pún-to I should much like to know accurately, vor-ré-i bên sa-pé-re di pre-ci-so. REGULAR VERBS. LESSONS IN ITALIAN. In verbs ending in are the third person singular is formed by The Future Tense (Tempo futuro) is formed by putting in the place of the final vowel e of the infinitive mood the terminations below, and, in addition to this, by changing the vowel a of the penultima in verbs ending in are into e (consequently amerò, I shall love-not amarò, parI shall love, etc. lerò, I shall speak-not parlarò, from parlare, to speak, etc.) AMAK-(e) The termination of the infinitive mood of all Italian verbs is the syllable re. The vowel immediately preceding this syllable is the characteristic letter of each Italian verb, predominant in most of its tenses, and determining the conjugation to whichè it belongs. This vowel is in the first conjugation a, e. g. a-má-re, to love; in the second conjugation e, e. g. te-mé-re, to fear, or cré-de-re, to believe; and in the third conjugation i, e. g. sen-ti-re, to feel. The second conjugation comprehends two classes of verbs. The first of them is a comparatively small number, and has the accent on the last syllable but one, or the penultima, e. g. te-mé-re, to fear; sa-pé-re, to know; ve-de-re, to see; vo-le-re, to be willing, etc. The second of them has the accent on the last syllable but two, or the antepenult, while the penultima is short (ere bré-ve), e. g. cré-de-re, to believe; leg-ge-re, to read; pêr-de-re, to lose; vén-de-re, to sell, etc. Some grammarians have even adopted two conjugations ending in ere, and consequently four conjugations of Italian verbs. Such a division, however, appears uselessly to increase the number of conjugations, as the difference of the termination in ere only belongs to the accent of the infinitive mood, while all the other tenses of both classes of the verbs ending in ere are identical, and as even the irregularities of several verbs ending in ere are the same whether the e of their penultima is long or short. I have on this account adhered to the generally adopted classification of three conjugations of the Italian verbs. Before entering on the conjugations themselves I shall present to the learner a synoptical table, showing the formation of the principal terminations of all Italian verbs, and by a scientific method imprinting them with greater efficiency on the memory. The syllables within the brackets of a parenthesis are omitted in the formation of the respective tenses. SENT (ire) sentiro, felt. THE PRESENT GERUND (GERUNDIO PRESENTE) TEMER-(c) o, AI, A'; EMO, ETE, ANNO. I shall fear, etc. The Conditional Present (Tempo condizionale presente) AMERE TEMERE I, STI, BBE; MMO, STE, EBERO. I should fear, etc. THE IMPERATIVE MOOD (MODO IMPERATIVO) is formed by adding to the root of the verb the terminations below. The learner will observe that the first and second persons plural of this mood are identical with the first and second persons plural of the present tense in the indicative mood. The third person plural of this mood is formed by adding the syllable no to the third person singular of the same mood. AM (are) ) A, 1; SENT (ire) A) NO. I, A ; love thou, etc. fear thou, etc. feel thou, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE OR CONJUNCTIVE MOOD (MODO CONGIUNTIVO) The Present Tense (Tempo presente) is in the three persons singular of all verbs identical with the third person singular of the imperative mood. The first and second persons plural of this tense have in all verbs the invariable terminations iamo and iate. The third person plural is is formed by changing the termination are in ando, and the formed by adding the syllable no to the third person singular terminations ere and ire in endo, e. g. of this tense. AM (are) amANDO, loving. sentENDO, feeling. TEM (ere) temENDO, fearing. SENT (ire) AM-(are) 'I, I, 1; I may love, etc. IA'MO, IA'TE, A NO. A, A, A ; I may fear, etc. SENT-(ire)} The Imperfect (Tempo presente di passato) (being strictly speaking a subjunctive mood only through commencing with the conjunction che, but expressing, when it commences with the particle se, if, a condition, the result of which is stated by the conditional mood) is formed by taking away from the infinitive mood the syllable re and putting in its place the following terminations: I might love, etc. I might fear, etc. I might feel, etc. The preceding table gives the principal terminations of the is formed by omitting the final syllable re of the infinitive mood Italian verbs. To commit them to memory would appear a and putting in its place the following terminations: I loved, etc. The Indeterminate Preterite (Tempo passato remoto), merely mechanical operation. By doing so the learner will, however, ensure a decided progress in reading and speaking, because he will at once have fixed in his mind what is essential and common to all conjugations, without the trouble of arriving at this important result after long labour and practice. I shall now present the conjugations themselves of the regular verbs, with some additional forms or terminations, the knowledge of which is indispensable, and with useful remarks in the shape of notes. |