meeting never does anything"; and yet we are governed by the House of Commons, - by "a big meeting."

-BAGEHOT: The English Constitution, 207.

3. All history is full of revolutions, produced by causes. similar to those which are now [March 2, 1831] operating in England. A portion of the community which had been of no account, expands and becomes strong. It demands a place in the system, suited, not to its former weakness, but to its present power. If this is granted, all is well. If this is refused, then comes the struggle between the young energy of one class and the ancient privileges of another. Such was the struggle between the Plebeians and the Patricians of Rome. Such was the struggle of the Italian allies for admission to the full rights of Roman citizens. Such was the struggle of our North American colonies against the mother country. Such was the struggle which the Third Estate of France maintained against the aristocracy of birth. Such was the struggle which the Roman Catholics of Ireland maintained against the aristocracy of creed. Such is the struggle which the free people of color in Jamaica are now maintaining against the aristocracy of skin. Such, finally, is the struggle which the middle classes in England are maintaining against an aristocracy of mere locality, against an aristocracy, the principle of which is to invest a hundred drunken potwallopers in one place, or the owner of a ruined hovel in another, with powers which are withheld from cities renowned to the furthest ends of the earth for the marvels of their wealth and of their industry. MACAULAY: Speech on the Reform Bill of 1832.

4. The circle of human nature is not complete without the arc of feeling and emotion. The lilies of the field have a value for us beyond their botanical ones, a certain lightening of the heart accompanies the declaration that "Solo

mon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these." The sound of the village bell which comes mellowed from the valley to the traveller upon the hill has a value beyond its acoustical one. The setting sun when it mantles with the bloom of roses the alpine snows has a value beyond its optical one. The starry heavens, as you know, had for Immanuel Kant a value beyond their astronomical one. Round about the intellect sweeps the horizon of emotions from which all our noblest impulses are derived. I think it very desirable to keep this horizon open; not to permit either priest or philosopher to draw down his shutters between you and it. And here the dead languages, which are sure to be beaten by science in the purely intellectual fight, have an irresistible claim. They supplement the work of science by exalting and refining the æsthetic faculty, and must on this account be cherished by all who desire to see human culture complete. There must be a reason for the fascination which these languages have so long exercised upon the most powerful and elevated minds, a fascination which will probably continue for men of Greek and Roman mold to the end of time. TYNDALL: Addresses.

B. The following topic statements are to be developed by specific instances or examples. The expressions "to mention a case in point," "for instance,” “a remarkable example of this," will often make clear just what is wanted.

1. One is frequently surprised by the intelligence which the lower animals show.

2. Even very great and very good men usually have some failing.

3. It is often the minor characters in Dickens's novels that are remembered longest.

4. A bad beginning does not necessarily imply a bad ending.

5. Men of great wealth are not all selfish.

6. The demands of labor organizations are frequently received in the wrong spirit.

7. People are too apt to decide that a person accused of crime is guilty before his case is tried.

8. Sometimes the best statesmen do not know what law is needed.

9. Some queer expressions are used by foreigners learning our language.

10. The abolitionist agitators were frequently placed in perilous positions.

By Cause and Effect.

28. In his chapter in the American Commonwealth, on "The Position of Women" Mr. Bryce points out that in America women are much more nearly on an equality with men than they are in Europe. He then asks, "What have been the results on the character and usefulness of women themselves?" and answers:

"They have opened to them a wider life and more variety of career. While the special graces of the feminine character do not appear to have suffered, there has been produced a sort of independence and a capacity for self-help which are increasingly valuable as the number of unmarried women increases. More resources are opened to an American woman who has to lead a solitary life, not merely in the way of employment but for the occupation of her mind and tastes, than to a European spinster or widow; while her education has not rendered the American wife less competent for the discharge of household duties."

This method of developing an idea is often followed in the paragraph. The topic statement having announced

something that may be regarded as a cause, the remain. ing sentences state the effects, consequences, or conclusions. This method of growth is illustrated in the following:

When the Romans conquered Greece and the East, [Cause] they saw a great many things which they had never seen before; and [Effect] they began to care more about eating and drinking, and building fine houses. [Cause] The Greeks were much cleverer than the Romans, or indeed than any people of the time, for all the best books and statues and pictures of the old world had been made by the Greek writers and artists. [Effect] So the Romans not only learned many new things from the Greeks, but gave up a great many of their own early beliefs. They thought less of their own Roman gods, and altogether they were not so simple or so good as they had been before.

-M. CREIGHTON: History of Rome (History Primers).

The statement of the effect is commonly preceded by some linking word or phrase such as, So, so that, therefore, consequently, accordingly, the result is, it follows, the effect is, and the like.

29. Assignments on Development by Cause and Effect.

A. In the following paragraphs, point out ideas which are related to one another as cause to effect:

1. The friction in the minute arteries and capillaries presents a considerable resistance to the flow of blood through them into the small veins. In consequence of this resistance, the force of the heart's beat is spent in maintaining the whole of the arterial system in a state of great distention; the arterial walls are put greatly on the stretch by the

pressure of the blood thrust into them by the repeated strokes of the heart; this is the pressure which we spoke of above as blood-pressure. - FOSTER: Physiology, chap. iv.

2. There was a salt marsh that bounded part of the mill. pond, on the edge of which, at high-water, we used to stand to fish for minnows. By much trampling, we had made it a mere quagmire. My proposal was to build a wharf there fit for us to stand upon, and I showed my comrades a large heap of stones which were intended for a new house near the marsh, and which would very well suit our purpose. Accordingly, in the evening, when the workmen were gone, I assembled a number of my playfellows, and working with them diligently, like so many emmets, sometimes two or three to a stone, we brought them all away and built our little wharf. The next morning the workmen were surprised at missing the stones, which were found in our wharf. quiry was made after the removers; we were discovered, and complained of; several of us were corrected by our fathers; and though I pleaded the usefulness of the work, mine convinced me that nothing was useful which was not honest. -FRANKLIN: Autobiography.

In

3. At court, and in the castles of the great nobles, where the pomp and state of a court were emulated, Norman-French was the only language employed; in courts of law the pleadings and judgments were delivered in the same tongue. In short, French was the language of honor, of chivalry, and even of justice; while the far more manly and expressive Anglo-Saxon was abandoned to the use of rustics and hinds, who knew no other. Still, however, the necessary intercourse (between the lords of the soil and those oppressed inferior beings by whom that soil was cultivated occasioned the gradual formation of a dialect compounded betwixt the French and the Anglo-Saxon, in which they could render them