condemned as subversive of religion and democracy. The Phi Beta Kappa suffered in this crusade. Avery Allen in his "Key to the Phi Beta Kappa," published in his Treatise on Masonry, 1831, criticised the motto of the society as follows: "Philosophy has been the watchword of infidels in every age, and by its learned and enchanting sound many unwary youths have been led to reject the only sure guide to heaven." And as we might expect, Jefferson's name was brought in and the charge was laid at his door of having founded this society and fostered in it such pernicious philosophic doctrines. In 1831, therefore, after prolonged and heated discussions, the Harvard chapter, largely through the influence of the Hon. John Quincy Adams, John Hancock, and Judge Story, voted that "no oath or form of secrect shall be required of any member of the society."

Immediately after taking such action the Harvard chapter sent their president, Edward Everett, to Yale to persuade that chapter too to resolve its secrets. According to a contemporary account, "He used a tender tone, stood half drooping as he spoke, and touchingly set forth that the students at Harvard had such conscientious scruples as to keep them from taking the vow of secrecy, and the society life was thus endangered. There was stout opposition, but the motion prevailed and the missionary returned to gladden the tender consciences of the Harvard boys."

From that time to the present day the society has ceased to be a true fraternity and now both in character and function. occupies a position unique among college organizations.

In the form of initiation provided by the parent chapter for the Harvard chapter, the person to be initiated, having been properly introduced, presents a paper in which he formally expresses his pleasure at the honor of being admitted to a society which has "Friendship for its basis, Benevolence and Literature for its Pillars." Thus it is evident that the three fundamental principles of the society were friendship, morality, and literature. "It was engrafted on the stock of friendship, in the soil of virtue, enriched by literature." The moral and religious character of the society is indicated by an article in the original constitution requiring an invocation to the Deity at the opening

of every meeting, and by the fact that heavy fines were imposed for intoxication and unbecoming conduct of any sort. It now remains to be seen how the society in those early days at William and Mary sought to carry out its principles, first in developing a spirit of benevolence and brotherly love, and second in cultivating a love of literature through regular programmes of declamation and debate, as well as by other means.

Originally the Phi Beta Kappa was a true fraternal organization, with practically all the features of a Greek-letter fraternity of to-day, having even a secret code by which the various chapters and members communicated with each other. It was, however, more than a mere exclusive society devoted to social pleasure or to the intellectual improvement of its members. Their conception of mutual obligation went further, for all the members were expected to aid one another in even more practical fashion. In the ceremony of initiation the candidate was required to answer the following questions: "Will you regard every worthy member of this society as a Brother? Will you assist them when in distress with your life and fortune?" And this benevolent feature, possibly adopted from Masonry, was further developed in an attempt on the part of the society at Williamsburg to "take under their care objects worthy of charity." As early as 1778 a committee was appointed to "look out for some orphan likely to receive advantage from being put to a proper school, and to make their report of the same to the ensuing meeting."

There is no further reference to this scheme in the Williamsburg records, but the Harvard chapter appears independently to have developed a somewhat similar beneficiary plan for relieving indigent brethren. In 1797, "it was thought expedient, without meaning to lose the literary in the humane institution, and without violating any charter restriction, to establish a fund, the object of which shall be to relieve those members of our brotherhood whom fortune may distress, to accommodate those who may wish for assistance, and in general to extend the advantages which result from a connection with the Phi Beta Kappa." Whereupon a collection was taken up for the purpose of establishing a fund, and at the close of the first year this fund, after deducting all

expenses, amounted to $41.95. In 1803, it had increased to $250. Owing, however, to the loss of some of the records, it is not known how long this fund continued to grow and to be applied to so worthy an object. The chief point of interest is that at a very early date the Phi Beta Kappa developed this benevolent feature so common to fraternal organizations to-day and foreshadowing the plan, not uncommon in our fraternities, of aiding needy students to work their way through college. As a continuation, or revival, of this policy, the National Council has recently established at William and Mary in memory of Elisha Parmele a scholarship for educating sons of members of the Phi Beta Kappa.

The original laws as adopted at William and Mary on March 1, 1777, provided that "four members be selected to perform at every session, two of whom in matters of argumentation, and the others in opposition," and that "such of the compositions as are deemed worthy by the society shall be carefully preserved and endorsed by whom and at what time delivered." It was resolved further "that three members be appointed to judge the performances and always to inform the ensuing meeting of their determination."

The plan seems to have been to have two carefully prepared papers written and delivered on some assigned subjects as leads, and have two other men appointed to follow with extemporaneous debate. For example, "Messrs. Brent and Clements were appointed to produce compositions inquiring whether Agriculture or Merchandise was most advantageous to a State; Messrs. Baker and Ballendine were appointed to argue on the same subject." The list of subjects debated at William and Mary, twenty-seven in number, contains a variety of topics, economic, political, social, historical. It may be of interest to cite a few: Whether the rape of the Sabine women was just; Whether all our affections and principles are not in some measure deducible from self-love; Whether theatrical exhibitions are advantageous to States, or the contrary; Whether anything is more dangerous to civil liberty in a free State than a standing army; The justice of African slavery; Whether the institution of ostracism was legal; Whether avarice or luxury is more beneficial to a Republic;

Whether dueling ought to have toleration in this or any other free State.

In looking back upon the past, however, there is danger lest we overexalt it and attribute to those who have gone before us ideals and motives of which they themselves were scarce conscious. Liberal as were the views of this little group of college boys in Williamsburg in this first year of our existence as an independent nation, like other college men of to-day they must have had a somewhat exaggerated notion of their own importance, and, with the natural enthusiasm of youth, had visions of a nation-wide influence on the part of their society. Their visions were splendid enough, but, as in all such college organizations of to-day, the burden of sustaining the society fell upon a select few who in their zeal and enthusiasm were forced to resort to desperate measures to keep their fraternity alive. Again and again we read in those early records of men who failed to do their duty even to the extent of attending the meetings. And on one occasion, "it appearing that the state of the society was declining through want of members, Resolved that a committee be appointed to take the same into consideration." It was found necessary to impose heavy fines on those who absented themselves, except for "some obstructing cause," or who failed to take their appointed parts in the programme. These records bring some element of consolation to those who may have struggled vainly to put new life into moribund literary societies with all their long list of distinguished alumni. Through such records we come to realize that the genus college boy has changed but little within the course of the century.

But more important yet in its influence on the intellectual growth of its members was the founding of a library by the Harvard chapter in 1785, when the chapter was but four years old. On November 29 of that year it was "voted that for establishing and regulating a library a tax of five shillings on each member be levied." As there were at that time about thirty-six members the funds must have amounted to about 180 shillings. The library must have grown rapidly, for soon it became necessary "to sell the chest which now contains the books to the highest bidder" and to purchase a bookcase. With the growth

of the society rules were adopted to govern the taking out of books and a catalogue was provided. During these early years the library must have been a valuable feature of the society and it was maintained for a period of sixty years, when it was voted to distribute the books so as "to render them most accessible and useful to the Students in College."

One other important feature of the literary programme which has had a permanent influence in Harvard and in all other institutions where there are chapters of the society must be mentioned, and that is, the custom of having an annual oration. In the early days when the membership was comparatively small, the annual orator was chosen from the society. The first anniversary celebration of the parent chapter was held December 5, 1777, at the Raleigh Tavern, Williamsburg, but of this meeting no record remains. The next year, however, a special effort was put forth to make the affair a memorable one. As far ahead as August 29 it was resolved "That every member absent from the society be written to in the most pressing terms to attend the 5th of December in order to celebrate that glorious day which gave birth to our happy union." Exactly how many responded we do not know, but the records tell us that the occasion was made noteworthy by the resignation of the first president of the society, John Heath; that he delivered a valedictory on the occasion; and that "the night was spent in jollity and mirth." During its existence at William and Mary the society depended altogether on its own members for annual orators at its anniversay celebrations, and always spent the evening in "sociability and mirth."

So far as the records show, this sociability and mirth did not lead to excesses in the Williamsburg chapter, although we cannot infer too much from this silence. At Harvard the annual dinners grew too convivial to suit the taste of the Rev. John Pierce of Brooklyn, an alumnus of the university, who with the exception of the year 1808, attended every commencement and every anniversary of the Phi Beta Kappa at Harvard for a period of forty-six years, from 1803 to 1848. From his MS. notes in the archives of the Harvard chapter we are able to gather vivid impressions of those festive occasions and of the orations and poems