TILES

the rival candidate. Owing to differences of opinion as to the proper mode of counting electoral votes and passing upon contested returns, the settlement of the matter was intrusted by Congress to the Presidential Electoral Commission, which decided in favor of the Republican electors in every contested case, and certified to the election of Rutherford B. Hayes. The Democratic Party continued to regard Tilden as its candidate for the succeeding election in 1880, but he was obliged by failing health to withdraw from public life. Tilden bequeathed the bulk of his property for the establishment of the Tilden Trust to found a free library and reading rooms in the city of New York.

Tiles, originally flat slabs of baked clay. There are now in common use roofing tiles, tiles for walls and floors, and drainage tiles. Wall tiling, with the figures in slight relief, has been used in Persia since antiquity. Encaustic is the trade name for tiles made of different colored clays inlaid upon a clay background and fixed together. See also MOSAIC.

Tillotson, John, 1630-94; English prelate; originally a Puritan, but at thirty years of age took orders in the English Church, and became celebrated as a preacher. He was the leading member of the commission of twenty divines appointed in 1689 to examine and revise the liturgy. On the accession of William III he was made dean of St. Paul's, and in 1691 Archbishop of Canterbury. He published "The Rule of Faith" and several volumes of sermons.

Til'ly, Johann Tserklaes (Count von), 15591632; general of the Thirty Years' War; b. in the castle of Tilly, province of Brabant, Belgium; being a younger son, was destined for the Church, and educated by the Jesuits, but preferred the military profession; served under Parma in the Netherlands, and under Duke Philip Emanuel of Lorraine in Hungary, and was in 1610 appointed field marshal by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. When the Thirty Years' War broke out, he was commander in chief of the army of the Holy League; suppressed the insurrection in Bohemia after the battle of Prague, November 8, 1620; won the battles of Wimpfen and Höchst in 1622, and Stadtlohn in 1623, and drove the Protestants from the Palatinate. He defeated Christian IV at Lutter, 1626, and with Wallenstein forced the Protestants to the Peace of Lübeck. Appointed commander in chief also of the imperial army after the dismissal of Wallenstein in 1630, he stormed Magdeburg May 20, 1631. The brutal outrages committed by the Walloons and Croats on entering the city have left a stain on Tilly's reputation. He was defeated by Gustavus Adolphus at Breitenfeld, 1631, and again on the Lech, 1632, in which battle he was mortally wounded.

Til'sit, town in the N. portion of E. Prussia left to it in the peace treaty of 1919; on the Niemen; 65 m. NE. of Königsberg. It is regularly built, and in a fertile and well-cultivated district. It manufactures cloth, hosiery, oil, paper, chemicals, has sugar refineries and important fisheries for eel and salmon, and has trade in grain, hemp, flax, wool, and horses. It is famous for

TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES

the Treaty of Tilsit concluded between Napoleon and the Czar Alexander in 1807 after the humbling of Prussia by the French. By this peace the foundation was laid for a RussianFrench alliance, and Prussia lost nearly half of her territory. Pop. (1900) 34,539.

Tim'ber and Timber Trees, wood suitable for constructive purposes, or for furniture, tools, and the like; also the trees furnishing such material. The most prominent species of timber trees used in the U. S. are the following:

The most important, and for its uses the best in the world, is white pine (Pinus strobus), in England called Weymouth pine. Hard-pine lumber, variously called yellow pine, pitch pine, etc., is most largely furnished, and of best quality, by P. palustris, the long-leaved pine of the S. states. The N. pitch pine furnishes a similar but inferior timber; and excellent hard pine is yielded by the short-leaved pine; while the loblolly pine at the S. and the red or Nor-. way pine at the N. furnishes a softer and less resinous lumber. Larch or hackmatack of the N. furnishes a valuable lumber for shipbuilding. Next are the spruces, with wood tougher than white pine, but more liable to shakes and splits. Black spruce is prized for spars. White spruce is smaller and inferior. Hemlock spruce furnishes at the N. a valuable but coarse lumber. Of the cypress tribe, the bald cypress of the S: states furnishes lumber of great size and much durability, but light and shaky; while the arbor vitæ or white cedar of the N. and that of the Middle and S. states yields small timber of exceeding durability, especially for posts; and red cedar furnishes a fine-grained wood of durability and value.

In the Pacific states and Rocky Mountain region the coniferous trees are numerous, and some are of immense height and girth. Of softwooded or white pines no one equals the white pine of the E. The sugar pine, with its immense trunks, takes its place, but the wood is coarser grained. For spruces, the Douglas spruce of Oregon and California is the best, as well as the largest. The cypress tribe is represented by several cypresses of value; also in Oregon and N. by an arbor vitæ vastly surpassing the E. species in size and value for timber, and in California by the famous redwood, the light wood of which is incomparable for building.

Of oaks, the most valuable species is the white oak. It grows 80 to 100 ft. and has a diameter of 6 or 7 ft., and yields handsome logs. The wood is of a pale reddish color, straight grained, compact, tough, strong, durable, and It is used for frames of shrinks but little. structures where strength and durability are required, coach making, shipbuilding, and a great variety of purposes. The other species come next to this in value-viz., chestnut-oaks, post-oak, bur-oak, etc. In the S. states, along the coast, the live oak is prized for shipbuilding above all others, but it does not give large timber. Its height is from 40 to 50 ft.; diameter, 1 to 2 ft. The wood is yellowish when first cut, and deepens to a dark brown with age; it is hard, tough, strong, heavy, and difficult to work, as the grain is waved or twisted.

TIMBER AND TIMBER TREES

The pores are minute, and the silver grain bright and distinct. The biennial-fruited oaks have more porous wood, unfitted for casks, less durable, and less strong. The best-viz., black oak-is found on poorer soils than the white oak, and grows 80 to 90 ft., with a diameter of 4 to 5 ft. The wood is reddish, porous, and coarse-grained. The outer bark is greatly used for tanning, and the inner bark, called quercitron, for dyeing. Spanish oak and willow oak are superior; and so are laurel or shingle oak (so called because used for shingles). California and Oregon have oaks of peculiar species, some valuable, but none which equal white oak. Chestnut is a large tree, of the Atlantic states only, essentially of the same species as the European, yielding a coarse-grained and porous but durable lumber, easily worked, and valuable for wainscoting, etc.

The American beech has a very close-grained and hard wood, of which joiners' tools are made. Ironwood and horn beam, as the names denote, have very hard wood, but they are small trees, peculiar to the Atlantic states. The hickory is peculiar to the Atlantic states. The shell bark or shag bark is the best, but all have a tough and hard wood of remarkable strength, much prized for tools and the like. The walnut is known in the Atlantic states by two species-i.e., white walnut or butternut, the favorite wood for gunstocks and cabinetwork, but a small tree; and black walnut, the most important of native woods for the cabinetmaker. The heart wood is of a violet color when first cut, but upon exposure becomes dark. It is far superior to the European walnut; it is strong, tough, durable when seasoned, and not apt to warp and split. It has a fine and compact grain, and is susceptible of a high polish. The birches are valuable timber trees of the second class, having a hard and fine-grained wood. The black or sweet birch, sometimes called cherry birch, is most prized, being excellent for furniture; and yellow birch is equally good, but lighter in color. Poplars or cottonwoods make large trees, as do some willows, but the wood is weak, soft, and usually of no durability.

Plane tree, buttonwood, or sycamore attains great size, but soon becomes hollow. The laurel family is represented in the East by the sassafras, and in California by a laurel the wood of which is extremely beautiful. White elm is a large tree, with handsome but not very durable wood. Slippery elm is a smaller tree, and the reddish wood is tougher. The ashes are timber trees of the first class. The yellowish wood is very firm and tough, but comparatively light, straight grained, and easy to work. White ash is the best, and is unexcelled for strength, elasticity, and durability, and it is preferred to chestnut for interior finish. Black ash, a smaller tree, has tougher wood, easily separable into layers, used for hoops and strong basket work. American holly of the Atlantic states has a very fine grained and compact white wood, used for ornamental cabinetwork, wooden screws, etc. The Kentucky coffee tree is a stately tree, of peculiar aspect, with handsome rosy or brownish wood, suited for cabinetwork. Honey locust is of little account, but the

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TIMBUKTU

true locust affords a timber equal to live oak in durability, especially valued for ships. Maples are fine trees, of which the sugar maple is the most valuable, having a hard and closegrained wood, of light color and silky luster when polished, and the varieties called curled and bird's-eye maple are prized for cabinetwork. The soft maples, so called from the character of their wood, are the white or silver maple and the red or swamp maple, the former a large and the latter a medium-sized tree, the wood of which is used for lasts, for carvings, etc. Lindens or limes, in the U. S. called basswood, are first-class forest trees for size, and their soft and white fine-grained wood is excellent for various purposes where lightness with moderate strength is demanded. Tulip tree, sometimes called whitewood or poplar, has a light and soft wood, like that of the linden, but more valuable.

The exotic timber trees of Europe are analogues of those of the U. S.-i.e., different species of pine, larch, spruce, oak, beech, elm, ash, linden, etc., only the chestnut being the same or nearly so-but are far fewer in species and in kind, tulip trees, gum trees, locusts, hickories, sassafras, bald cypress, redwood, etc., being wholly wanting. As to foreign woods of tropical regions imported for the use of cabinetmakers-such as mahogany, Spanish cedar, rosewood, lignum-vitæ, and the like-they are mostly treated under their names.

ESTRY.

See FOR

The original forest acreage of the U. S. of 850,000,000 has been reduced to 550,000,000. About one fifth of the standing timber of the country is held by the Federal Govt. in national forests, Indian reservations, national parks, and unreserved public domain, and by the states in state reserves. The value of the forest prod

ucts of the U. S. in 1907 was about $1,280,000,000. The U. S. uses 250 cu. ft. of wood per capita annually, Germany uses 37 cu. ft., and France 25. See WOOD; PRESERVATION OF TIMBER; FORESTRY.

Timbuk'tu (formerly TIMBUCTOO), town in the military territory of French Sudan, central Africa; 10 m. N. of the Niger, near the desert of Sahara. It is in an unhealthful and unproductive district; provisions have to be brought to it from distant places; but for the traffic between N. and central Africa it is of importance; and although it has repeatedly suffered from being conquered and sacked by the Moors and by neighboring tribes, it has always risen again and is still increasing. Dates, European goods, gunpowder, tobacco, and paper are brought here through Sahara and exchanged for gums, ostrich feathers, gold dust, and palm oil. The rapid development of its commerce has been hindered by the jealousy between the British and French merchants. The town is poorly built of one-story mud huts, and, with the exception of a mosque dating from 1325, contains few buildings worth noticing. It was formerly surrounded by walls. The inhabitants, variously estimated at from 5,000 to 20,000, are indigenous negroes, but mixed with other races. The city seems to date back to the twelfth century, but was visited by no European until | Laing reached it in 1826.

TIME

Time. Measurements of long periods, months, and years depend on astronomical phenomena, especially the motions of the sun and moon. Measurements of fractions of a day are made by observing the direction of the sun, or in our time by clocks and watches.

The longest unit of time which can be determined directly by observation is the year. This is the time occupied by the earth in one revolution around the sun; but there is a slight ambiguity as to the time when a revolution shall be regarded as complete. The sidereal year, which is properly that of the earth's revolution, is slightly longer than the solar year, on which the seasons depend. Since it is the change of seasons which fixes the length of the year for practical purposes, the solar year is that used both in astronomy and in daily life. The next shorter unit of time is the lunar month or the interval between one new moon and the next. As this interval is neither an entire number of days nor an aliquot part of a year, it is no longer used as a measure of time. It has given way to the calendar month. The most exact measure of all is the day, because the time of the earth's revolution on its axis remains unchanged from century to century. If it varies at all the change does not amount to one thousandth of a second in a century. The time of one revolution of the earth on its axis is called the "sidereal day" because it is equal to the interval between two passages of a star across the meridian of a place. Owing to the annual revolution of the earth around the sun the sidereal day does not coincide with the interval between two transits of the sun over the meridian. If the sun and the star cross at the same moment to-day, the sun will be nearly four minutes later than the star in crossing to-morrow. In the course of a year the number of revolutions which the earth actually makes on its axis is one greater than the number of days; hence the sidereal day cannot be used for daily life and the solar day must take its place.

The true or apparent solar day is the interval between two transits of the sun over the meridian. Owing to the varying velocity of the earth in its orbit and to the obliquity of the ecliptic, the difference between a transit of the sun and that of a star will sometimes change by more than four minutes and sometimes by less than four minutes in a day. Thus the solar days are a little longer at some seasons and a little shorter at others. A hundred years ago, when men depended mainly on observations of the sun, or on a sundial or a meridian mark, for their time, the difference caused no trouble, but when accurate clocks and watches were introduced they had to be constantly set forward or back in order to keep time with the sun.

Apparent solar time is time measured by the actual passage of the sun over the meridian. Mean solar time is defined by the motion of a fictitious sun called "the mean sun," which is imagined to move with perfect uniformity, being sometimes behind the true sun and sometimes in advance of it. The hours of this time are those measured by a perfectly regulated clock. On the system of measuring the day by

TIMOLEON

the sun, noon at any place is the moment at which the mean sun passes the meridian of that place. Owing to the roundness of the earth different places pass under the sun at different times; in fact, noon continually travels around the earth, reaching every part of it in succession during intervals of one day. Noon takes about three hours to pass from New York to San Francisco. When it is noon at San Francisco it is one o'clock in the Rocky Mountains, two o'clock in the Mississippi valley, three o'clock in the Atlantic coast, four o'clock in Labrador, eight o'clock at Greenwich, etc. The difference is four minutes for every degree of longitude. So long as men did not travel rapidly this difference of time caused no inconvenience; but when railways were introduced it caused confusion. To lessen this confusion, what is called standard time was introduced in 1883.

The rule for standard time is that, within the belt included between the meridians of Calais, Me., and Newark, Ohio, railways and the public shall use the time (called Eastern time) determined by the observer E. of Philadelphia, who is exactly 75° in longitude, or five hours in time W. of Greenwich. Going farther W., say to Cincinnati, a new meridian of 90° W. of Greenwich is taken, which passes near New Orleans, St. Louis, and Davenport. The mean sun crosses this meridian one hour after it crosses that at Philadelphia, and the moment of crossing is taken as noon, not only for all places on the meridian, but for all places within half an hour E. of W. of it; this time is called Central. At Denver the St. Louis noon gun would be heard at eleven o'clock. So we pass a new meridian near Denver, which is 105° W. of Greenwich, and which the sun does not reach until two hours after it has passed Philadelphia. and one hour after it has passed St. Louis. The time of this meridian (called Mountain time) is used for all the places whose time does not differ from it by more than half an hour. A fourth meridian is that of 120° from Greenwich, and it passes near the Pacific coast, E. of Sacramento and Stockton, where the time is called Pacific time. The moment when the sun crosses this meridian is taken for noon for all places not more than half an hour distant from it E. or W. Thus the traveler who wishes to know the time actually used at any railway station, or by the inhabitants of any city, has only to change his watch by one or more entire hours, the minutes remaining the same. See CHRONOLOGY.

Timo'leon, abt. 395-337 B.C.; Corinthian general, liberator of Syracuse. In his hatred of tyranny he assassinated his brother Timophanes, who had usurped power in Corinth. Seized by remorse, he lived for nearly twenty years in seclusion. In 344 he took command of an expedition sent by the Corinthians in aid of the Syracusans, attacked by the Carthaginians and Hicetas of Leontini. Dionysus the Younger, despairing of success in his own cause, gave up to him the island of Ortygia, and Syracuse easily fell into his hands. He gave the inhabitants a democratic constitution, and in a short time more than 60,000 immigrants