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Electrical and Electronics Engineers

(D.O.T. 003.061, .167 except -034 and -070, and .187)

Nature of the Work

Electrical and electronics engineers design, develop, test, and supervise the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment. Electrical equipment includes power generating and transmission equipment used by electric utilities, and electric motors, machinery controls, and lighting and wiring in buildings, automobiles, and aircraft. Electronic equipment includes radar, computer hardware, and communications and video equipment.

The specialties of electrical and electronics engineers include several major areas such as power generation, transmission, and distribution; communications; computer electronics; and electrical equipment manufacturing or a subdivision of these areas-industrial robot control systems or aviation electronics, for example. Electrical and electronics engineers design new products, write performance requirements, and develop maintenance schedules. They also test equipment, solve operating problems, and estimate the time and cost of engineering projects. (See the statement on computer scientists, computer engineers, and systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Employment

Electrical and electronics engineers held about 367,000 jobs in 1996, making it the largest branch of engineering. Most jobs were in engineering and business consulting firms, manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment, industrial machinery manufacturers, professional and scientific instruments, and government agencies. Communications and utilities firms, manufacturers of aircraft and guided missiles, and computer and data processing services firms accounted for most of the remaining jobs.

Job Outlook

Job openings resulting from job growth and the need to replace electrical engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force should be sufficient to absorb the number of new graduates and other entrants, making for good employment opportunities through 2006. Employment of electrical and electronics engineers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations.

Electrical and electronics engineers comprise the largest branch of engineering.

The need for electronics manufacturers to invest heavily in research and development to remain competitive, will provide openings for graduates who have learned the latest technologies. Increased demand by businesses and government for improved computers and communications equipment is expected to account for much of the projected employment growth. Consumer demand for electrical and electronic goods should create additional jobs. Job growth is expected to be fastest in non-manufacturing industries, however, because firms are increasingly getting electronic engineering expertise from consulting and service companies.

Engineers who fail to keep up with the rapid changes in technology in some specialties risk technological obsolescence, which makes them more susceptible to layoffs or, at a minimum, more likely to be passed over for advancement. Opportunities for electronics engineers in defense-related firms may improve as the trend shifts to upgrading existing aircraft and weapons systems with improved navigation, control, guidance, and targeting systems.

(See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.)

Industrial Engineers

(D.O.T. 005.167-026; 012.061 -018, .067, .167 except -022, -026, -034, -058, and -062, and .187)

Nature of the Work

Industrial engineers determine the most effective ways for an organization to use the basic factors of production-people, machines, materials, information, and energy-to make or process a product or produce a service. They are the bridge between management goals and operational performance. They are more concerned with increasing productivity through the management of people, methods of business organization, and technology than are engineers in other specialties, who generally work more with products or processes.

To solve organizational, production, and related problems most efficiently, industrial engineers carefully study the product and its requirements, use mathematical methods such as operations research to meet those requirements, and design manufacturing and information systems. They develop management control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design production planning and control systems to coordinate activities and control product quality, and design or improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Industrial engineers determine which plant location has the best combination of raw materials availability, transportation, and costs. They also develop wage and salary administration systems and job evaluation programs. Many industrial engineers move into management positions because the work is closely related.

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Employment

Industrial engineers held about 115,000 jobs in 1996. About 73 percent of these jobs were in manufacturing industries. Because their skills can be used in almost any type of organization, industrial engineers are more widely distributed among manufacturing industries than other engineers.

Their skills can be readily applied outside manufacturing as well. Some work in engineering and management services, utilities, and business services; others work for government agencies or as independent consultants.

Job Outlook

Employment of industrial engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2006, making for favorable opportunities. Industrial growth, more complex business operations, and the greater use of automation in factories and in offices underlie the projected employment growth. Because the main function of an industrial engineer is to make a higher quality product as efficiently as possible, their services should be in demand in the

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manufacturing sector as firms seek to reduce costs and increase productivity through scientific management and safety engineering. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace industrial engineers who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

(See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.)

Mechanical Engineers

(D.O.T. 007.061, .161-022, -034, and -038, and .267-010)

Nature of the Work

Mechanical engineers plan and design tools, engines, machines, and other mechanical equipment. They design and develop powerproducing machines such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet and rocket engines. They also design and develop power-using machines such as refrigeration and airconditioning equipment, robots, machine tools, materials handling systems, and industrial production equipment.

The work of mechanical engineers varies by industry and function. Specialties include, among others, applied mechanics, design, energy systems, pressure vessels and piping, and heating, refrigeration, and air conditioning systems. Mechanical engineers design tools needed by other engineers for their work.

Mechanical engineering is the broadest engineering discipline, extending across many interdependent specialties. Mechanical engi

Graduates of mechanical engineering programs should have favorable job opportunities.

neers may work in production operations, maintenance, or technical sales; many are administrators or managers.

Employment

Mechanical engineers held about 228,000 jobs in 1996. Almost 6 out of 10 jobs were in manufacturing-of these, most were in the machinery, transportation equipment, electrical equipment, instruments, and fabricated metal products industries. Business and engineering consulting services and Federal government agencies provided most of the remaining jobs.

Job Outlook

Employment of mechanical engineers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2006. Graduates of mechanical engineering programs should have favorable job opportunities. Most of the expected job openings, resulting from both employment growth and the need to replace those who will leave the occupation, should be sufficient to absorb the supply of new graduates and other entrants.

Although overall employment in manufacturing is expected to decline, employment of mechanical engineers in manufacturing should increase as the demand for improved machinery and machine tools grows and industrial machinery and processes become increasingly complex. Employment of mechanical engineers in business and engineering services firms is expected to grow faster than average as other industries in the economy increasingly contract out to these firms to solve engineering problems.

(See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.)

Metallurgical, Ceramic, and Materials Engineers

(D.O.T. 006.061; 011.061; and 019.061-014)

Nature of the Work

Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers develop new types of metal alloys, ceramics, plastics, composites, and other materials, and

adapt existing materials to new uses. Engineers manipulate the atomic and molecular structure of materials in controlled manufacturing environments, selecting materials with desirable mechanical, electrical, magnetic, chemical, and heat-transfer properties which meet special performance requirements. Examples are graphite golf club shafts that are light but stiff, ceramic tiles on the space shuttle that protect it from burning up during reentry into the atmosphere, and the alloy turbine blades in a jet engine.

Most metallurgical engineers work in one of the three main branches of metallurgy-extractive or chemical, physical, and mechanical or process. Extractive metallurgists are concerned with removing metals from ores and refining and alloying them to obtain useful metal. Physical metallurgists study the nature, structure, and physical properties of metals and their alloys, and methods of processing them into final products. Mechanical metallurgists develop and improve metalworking processes such as casting, forging, rolling, and drawing.

Ceramic engineers develop new ceramic materials and methods for making ceramic materials into useful products. Ceramics include all nonmetallic, inorganic materials which require high temperatures in their processing. Ceramic engineers work on products as diverse as glassware, semiconductors, automobile and aircraft engine components, fiber-optic phone lines, tile, and electric power line insulators.

Materials engineers evaluate technical requirements and material specifications to develop materials that can be used, for example, to reduce the weight, but not the strength of an object. Materials engineers also test and evaluate materials and develop new materials, such as the composite materials now being used in "stealth" aircraft.

Materials engineer measures the expansion characteristics of a material.

Employment

Metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers held about 18,000 jobs in 1996. One-fourth worked in metal-producing and processing industries. They also worked in aircraft manufacturing; research and testing services; Federal Government agencies; industries that manufacture machinery and electrical equipment; stone, clay, and glass products manufacturing; and engineering consulting firms.

Job Outlook

Individuals seeking employment as metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers should find good opportunities as the number of anticipated job openings should be sufficient to absorb the low number of new graduates relative to those in other engineering disciplines. Employment of metallurgical, ceramic, and materials engineers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2006.

Many of the industries in which these engineers are concentrated, such as stone, clay, and glass products; primary metals; fabricated metal products; and transportation equipment industries, are expected to experience little if any employment growth through the year 2006. Anticipated employment growth in service industries, such as research and testing services and engineering and architectural services, however, should provide significant job openings as these firms are hired to develop improved materials for their industrial customers.

(See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.)

Mining Engineers (D.O.T. 010.061 except -018)

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Nature of the Work

Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare coal, metals, and minerals for use by manufacturing industries and utilities. They design open pit and underground mines, supervise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground operations, and devise methods for transporting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the safe, economical, and environmentally sound operation of mines. Some mining engineers work with geologists and metallurgical engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. Others develop new mining equipment or direct mineral processing operations to separate minerals from the dirt, rock, and other materials with which they are mixed. Mining engineers frequently specialize in the mining of one mineral or metal, such as coal or gold. With increased emphasis on protecting the environment, many mining engineers work to solve problems related to land reclamation and water and air pollution.

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The mining industry traditionally has few openings. In fact, employment in the mining industry and of mining engineers is expected to decline through the year 2006. Therefore, graduates in mining engineering will face competition despite their low number.

Opportunities in the mining industry are closely related to the price of the metals and minerals they produce. If the price of these products is high, it makes it worthwhile for a mining company to invest the millions of dollars in material moving equipment and ore processing technology necessary to operate a mine. Although prices

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for mined products have been unstable, the increasing activity of auto manufacturing and expanded development and repair of the Nation's roadways will help provide demand for metals and minerals.

The long-term business environment for mining is generally perceived to be favorable, but because a mine takes years of research, planning, and development to become fully operational, it may not contribute to expansion in employment opportunities for mining engineers. Also, because mining operations around the world recruit graduates of U.S. mining engineering programs, opportunities may be better worldwide than within the United States.

(See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.)

Nuclear Engineers

(D.O.T. 005.061-042; 015.061, .067, .137, and .167)

Nature of the Work

Nuclear engineers research and develop the processes, instruments, and systems used to derive benefits from nuclear energy and radiation. They design, develop, monitor, and operate nuclear power plants used to generate electricity and power Navy ships. They may work on the nuclear fuel cycle-the production, handling, and use of nuclear fuel and the safe disposal of waste produced by nuclear energy or on fusion energy. Some specialize in the development of nuclear power sources for spacecraft; others develop industrial and medical uses for radioactive materials, such as equipment to diagnose and treat medical problems.

Employment

Nuclear engineers held about 14,000 jobs in 1996. About 20 percent each were in utilities, the Federal Government, and engineering consulting firms. Another 12 percent were in research and testing services. More than half of all federally employed nuclear engineers were civilian employees of the Navy, and most of the rest worked for the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the Department of Energy, or the Tennessee Valley Authority. Most nonfederally employed nuclear engineers worked for public utilities or engineering consulting companies. Some worked for defense manufacturers or manufacturers of nuclear power equipment.

Nuclear engineer checks a control panel at a nuclear plant.

Job Outlook

Employment of nuclear engineers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2006. Because this is a small occupation, it will translate into few growth-related opportunities. Most openings will arise as nuclear engineers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. However, good opportunities for nuclear engineers should still exist since the small number of nuclear engineering graduates is likely to be in balance with the number of job openings.

Due to public concerns over the cost and safety of nuclear power, there are only a small number of nuclear power plants under construction in the United States, and it is possible some older plants will shut down. Nevertheless, nuclear engineers will be needed to operate existing plants. In addition, nuclear engineers will be needed to work in defense-related areas, to develop nuclear medical technology, and to improve and enforce waste management and safety standards.

(See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.)

Petroleum Engineers

(D.O.T. 010.061 except -014 and -026, .161-010, and 167-010 and -014)

Nature of the Work

Petroleum engineers search the world for underground reservoirs containing oil or natural gas. When one is discovered, petroleum engineers work with geologists and other specialists to understand the geologic formation and properties of the rock containing the reservoir, determine the drilling methods to be used, and monitor drilling and production operations. They design equipment and processes to achieve the maximum profitable recovery of oil and gas, sometimes using computer models to simulate reservoir performance using different recovery techniques.

Because only a small proportion of the oil and gas in a reservoir will flow out under natural forces, petroleum engineers develop and use various enhanced recovery methods. These include injecting water, chemicals, gases, or steam into an oil reservoir to force more of the oil out, and computer-controlled drilling or fracturing to connect a larger area of a reservoir to a single well. Since even the best

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duction, and service companies. Engineering consulting firms, government agencies, oil field services, and equipment suppliers also employ petroleum engineers. Others work as independent consultants.

Most petroleum engineers work where oil and gas are found. Large numbers are employed in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Colorado, and California, including offshore sites. Many American petroleum engineers also work overseas in oil-producing countries. Because petroleum engineers specialize in the discovery and production of oil and gas, relatively few are employed in the refining, transportation, and retail sectors of the oil and gas industry.

Job Outlook

Employment of petroleum engineers is expected to decline through the year 2006 unless oil and gas prices unexpectedly rise enough to encourage increased exploration for oil in this country. In spite of this, employment opportunities for petroleum engineers should be favorable because the number of degrees granted in petroleum engineering has traditionally been low. Therefore, new graduates are not likely to significantly exceed the number of job openings arising as petroleum engineers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. Also, petroleum engineers work around the globe, and many employers seek U.S.-trained petroleum engineers for jobs in other countries.

The price of oil has a major effect on the level of employment opportunities for petroleum engineers in the United States. A high price of oil and gas makes it profitable for oil exploration and production firms to seek oil and gas reservoirs, and they will hire petroleum engineers to do so. With low oil prices, however, it is cheaper to purchase needed oil from other countries, such as Saudi Arabia, which have vast oil reserves. Also, the best exploration opportunities are in other countries because many of the most likely petroleum-producing areas in the United States have already been explored. However, the implementation of new technologies that expand drilling possibilities and improve the performance of reservoirs in the U.S. and the Gulf of Mexico may create new opportunities.

(See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements, earnings, and sources of additional information.)

Engineering Technicians

(D.O.T. 002.261-014, .262-010; 003.161, 261-010, .362; 005.261; 006.261; 007.161-026 and -030, .167-010, .181 and .267-014; 008.261; 010.261-010 and -026; 011.261-010, -014, -018, and -022, 281, .361; 012.261-014, .267; 013.161; 017.261-010; 017.684; 019.161-014, .261-018, -022, -026, and -034, 267, 281; 194.381, .382-010; 199.261-014; 726.261-010 and -014; 806.281-014; 761.281-014; 828.261-018; and 869.261-026)

Significant Points

About 43 percent of all engineering technicians employed in 1996 were electrical and electronic engineering technicians.

Most employers prefer those with an associate's degree in engineering technology.

Nature of the Work

Engineering technicians use the principles and theories of science, engineering, and mathematics to solve technical problems in research and development, manufacturing, sales, construction, inspection, and maintenance. Their work is more limited in scope and more practically oriented than that of scientists and engineers. Many engineering technicians assist engineers and scientists, especially in research and development. Others work in quality control-inspecting products and processes, conducting tests, or collecting data. In manufacturing, they may assist in product design and development, process design, or production.

Engineering technicians who work in research and development, build or set up equipment, prepare and conduct experiments, calculate or record the results, and help engineers in other ways. Some make prototype versions of newly designed equipment. They also assist in design work, often using computer-aided design equipment.

Engineering technicians who work in manufacturing support the work of engineers. They may prepare specifications for materials, devise and run tests to ensure product quality, or study ways to improve manufacturing efficiency. They may also supervise production workers to make sure they follow prescribed procedures.

Most engineering technicians specialize in certain areas, learning skills and working in the same disciplines as engineers. Occupational titles, therefore, tend to follow the same structure as engineers. Chemical engineering technicians are usually employed in industries producing pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and petroleum products, among others. They work in laboratories as well as processing plants. They help develop new chemical products and processes, test processing equipment and instrumentation, monitor quality, and operate chemical manufacturing facilities.

Civil engineering technicians help civil engineers plan and build highways, buildings, bridges, dams, wastewater treatment systems, and other structures, and perform related surveys and studies. Some inspect water and wastewater treatment systems to ensure pollution control requirements are met. Others estimate construction costs and specify materials to be used. Some may even prepare drawings or

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