Carpenters

(D.O.T. 806.281-058; 860.281-010 through .664-010 and 684-101 and -014; 863.684-010; 869.361-018, .381-010, -034, .684-018, -034, -042, and -058; and 962.281-010)

Significant Points

The largest construction trade in 1996 with 996,000 workers, nearly one-third of whom were self employed. Although employment is expected to grow slowly, job opportunities should be excellent because high turnover rates create many job openings.

Carpenters with skills in all aspects of carpentry work the most steadily because they have the versatility to perform whatever types of jobs that may be available.

Nature of the Work

Carpenters are involved in many different kinds of construction activity. They cut, fit, and assemble wood and other materials in the construction of buildings, highways, bridges, docks, industrial plants, boats, and many other structures. Their duties vary by type of employer. A carpenter employed by a special trade contractor, for example, may specialize in one or two activities, such as setting forms for concrete construction or erecting scaffolding. However, a carpenter employed by a general building contractor may perform many tasks, such as framing walls and partitions, putting in doors and windows, hanging kitchen cabinets, and installing paneling and tile ceilings.

Local building codes often dictate where certain materials can be used, and carpenters must know these requirements. Each carpentry task is somewhat different, but most involve the same basic steps. Working from blueprints or instructions from supervisors, carpenters first do the layout-measuring, marking, and arranging materials. They then cut and shape wood, plastic, ceiling tile, fiberglass, or drywall using hand and power tools, such as chisels, planes, saws, drills, and sanders, and then join the materials with nails, screws, staples, or adhesives. In the final step, they check the accuracy of their work with levels, rules, plumb bobs, and framing squares and

Carpenters risk injury from the use of power equipment.

make any necessary adjustments. When working with prefabricated components, such as stairs or wall panels, the carpenter's task is somewhat simpler because it does not require as much layout work or the cutting and assembly of as many pieces. These components are designed for easy and fast installation and generally can be installed in a single operation.

Carpenters employed outside the construction industry perform a variety of installation and maintenance work. They may replace panes of glass, ceiling tiles, and doors, as well as repair desks, cabinets, and other furniture. Depending on the employer, they may install partitions, doors, and windows; change locks; and repair broken furniture. In manufacturing firms, carpenters may assist in moving or installing machinery. (For more information on workers who install this machinery, see the sections on industrial machinery repairers and millwrights elsewhere in the Handbook.)

Working Conditions

As in other building trades, carpentry work is sometimes strenuous. Prolonged standing, climbing, bending, and kneeling are often necessary. Carpenters risk injury from slips or falls, working with sharp or rough materials, and using of sharp tools and power equipment. Many carpenters work outdoors.

Some carpenters change employers each time they finish a construction job. Others alternate between working for a contractor and working as contractors themselves on small jobs.

Employment

Carpenters, the largest group of building trades workers, held about 996,000 jobs in 1996. Four of every 5 worked for contractors who build, remodel, or repair buildings and other structures. Most of the remainder worked for manufacturing firms, government agencies, wholesale and retail establishments, and schools. Nearly one-third were self-employed.

Carpenters are employed throughout the country in almost every community.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Carpenters learn their trade through on-the-job training and through formal training programs. Some pick up skills informally by working under the supervision of experienced workers. Many acquire skills through vocational education. Others participate in employer training programs or apprenticeships.

Most employers recommend an apprenticeship as the best way to learn carpentry. Because the number of apprenticeship programs is limited, however, only a small proportion of carpenters learn their trade through these programs. Apprenticeship programs are administered by local joint union-management committees of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, the Associated General Contractors, Inc., or the National Association of Home Builders. Training programs are administered by local chapters of the Associated Builders and Contractors and by local chapters of the Associated General Contractors, Inc. These programs combine onthe-job training with related classroom instruction. Apprenticeship applicants must generally be at least 17 years old and meet local requirements. For example, some union locals test an applicant's aptitude for carpentry. The length of the program, usually about 3 to 4 years, varies with the apprentice's skill.

On the job, apprentices learn elementary structural design and become familiar with common carpentry jobs such as layout, form building, rough framing, and outside and inside finishing. They also learn to use the tools, machines, equipment, and materials of the trade. Apprentices receive classroom instruction in safety, first aid, blueprint reading, and freehand sketching, basic mathematics, and different carpentry techniques. Both in the classroom and on the job, they learn the relationship between carpentry and the other building trades.

Informal on-the-job training is usually less thorough than an apprenticeship. The degree of training and supervision often depends on the size of the employing firm. A small contractor specializing in home-building may only provide training in rough framing. In con

trast, a large general contractor may provide training in several carpentry skills. Although specialization is becoming increasingly common, it is important to try to acquire skills in all aspects of carpentry and to have the flexibility to perform any kind of work. Carpenters with a well-rounded background can switch from residential building to commercial construction to remodeling jobs, depending on demand.

A high school education is desirable, including courses in carpentry, shop, mechanical drawing, and general mathematics. Manual dexterity, eye-hand coordination, physical fitness, and a good sense of balance are important. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately is alsohelpful. Employers and apprenticeship committees generally view favorably, training and work experience obtained in the Armed Services and the job corps.

Carpenters may advance to carpentry supervisors or general construction supervisors. Carpenters usually have greater opportunities than most other construction workers to become general construction supervisors, because they are exposed to the entire construction process. Some carpenters become independent contractors. To advance, carpenters should be able to estimate the nature and quantity of materials needed to properly complete a job. They must also be able to estimate, with accuracy, how long a job should take to complete, and its

cost.

Job Outlook

Job opportunities for carpenters are expected to be plentiful through the year 2006, due primarily to extensive replacement needs. Thousands of job openings will become available each year as carpenters transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. The total number of job openings for carpenters is usually greater than for other craft occupations, because the occupation is large and the turnover rate is high. Because there are no strict training requirements for entry, many people with limited skills take jobs as carpenters but eventually leave the occupation because they dislike the work or cannot find steady employment.

Increased demand for carpenters will create additional job openings. Employment is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the year 2006. Construction activity should increase slowly in response to demand for new housing and commercial and industrial plants, and the need to renovate and modernize existing structures. Opportunities for frame carpenters will be particularly good. The demand for carpenters will be offset somewhat by expected productivity gains resulting from the increasing use of prefabricated components, such as prehung doors and windows and prefabricated wall panels and stairs, that can be installed much more quickly. Prefabricated walls, partitions, and stairs can be quickly lifted into place in one operation; beams, and in some cases entire roof assemblies, can be lifted into place using a crane. As prefabricated components become more standardized, their use will increase. In addition, stronger adhesives reducing the time needed to join materials and lightweight cordless pneumatic and combustion tools such as nailers and drills, as well as sanders with electronic speed controls, will make carpenters more efficient and reduce fatigue.

Although employment of carpenters is expected to grow over the long run, people entering the occupation should expect to experience periods of unemployment. This results from the short-term nature of many construction projects, and the cyclical nature of the construction industry. Building activity depends on many factors-interest rates, availability of mortgage funds, government spending, and business investment—that vary with the state of the economy. During economic downturns, the number of job openings for carpenters declines. The introduction of new and improved tools, equipment, techniques, and materials has vastly increased carpenters' versatility. Therefore, carpenters with all-round skills will have better opportunities than those who can only do relatively simple, routine tasks.

Job opportunities for carpenters also vary by geographic area. Construction activity parallels the movement of people and businesses and reflects differences in local economic conditions. Therefore, the number of job opportunities and apprenticeship opportunities in a given year may vary widely from area to area.

Earnings

Median weekly earnings of carpenters, excluding the self-employed, were $476 in 1996. The middle 50 percent earned between $345 and $660 per week. Weekly earnings for the top 10 percent of all carpenters were more than $874; the lowest 10 percent earned less than $267.

Earnings may be reduced on occasion because carpenters lose work time in bad weather and during recessions when jobs are unavailable. Many carpenters are members of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America.

Related Occupations

Carpenters are skilled construction workers. Workers in other skilled construction occupations include bricklayers, concrete masons, electricians, pipefitters, plasterers, plumbers, stonemasons, and terrazzo workers.

Sources of Additional Information

For information about carpentry apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, contact local carpentry contractors, locals of the union mentioned above, local joint union-contractor apprenticeship committees, or the nearest office of the State employment service or State apprenticeship agency.

For general information about carpentry, contact:

· Associated Builders and Contractors, 1300 North 17th Street, Rosslyn, VA 22209.

☛ Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.

Home Builders Institute, National Association of Home Builders, 1201 15th St. NW., Washington, DC 20005.

United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.

Carpet Installers

(D.O.T. 864.381-010)

Significant Points

The majority of carpet installers are self employed. Working conditions are generally more pleasant than those of other construction trades, because carpet is installed in finished, or nearly finished, structures. Carpet installers are less likely than other construction trades to be idled by slowdowns in construction or inclement weather.

Nature of the Work

Carpet installers work in many types of buildings-including homes, offices, stores, and restaurants. Before installing the carpet, these craft workers first inspect the surface to be covered to determine its condition and, if necessary, correct any imperfections that could show through the carpet. They must measure the area to be carpeted and plan the layout, keeping in mind expected traffic patterns and placement of seams for best appearance and maximum wear.

When installing wall-to-wall carpet without tacks, installers first fasten a tackless strip to the floor, next to the wall. They then install the padded cushion or underlay. Next, they roll out, measure, mark, and cut the carpet, allowing for 2 to 3 inches of extra carpet for the final fitting. Using a knee kicker, they position the carpet, stretching it to fit evenly on the floor and snugly against each wall and door threshold. They then rough cut the excess carpet. Finally, using a power stretcher, they stretch the carpet, hooking it to the tackless strip to hold it in place. The installer then finishes the edges using a wall trimmer.

Carpet installers constantly bend and kneel.

Because most carpet comes in 12-foot widths, wall-to-wall installations require installers to tape or sew sections together for large rooms. They join the seams by sewing them with a large needle and special thread or by using heat-taped seams-a special plastic tape made to join seams when activated with heat.

On special upholstery work, such as stairs, carpet may be held in place with staples. Also, in commercial installations, carpet is often glued directly to the floor or to padding which has been glued to the floor.

Carpet installers use handtools such as hammers, drills, staple guns, carpet knives, and rubber mallets. They also may use carpetlaying tools, such as carpet shears, knee kickers, wall trimmers, loop pile cutters, heat irons, and power stretchers.

Working Conditions

Carpet installers generally work regular daytime hours, but when recarpeting stores or offices, they may work evenings and weekends to avoid disturbing customers or employees. Installers usually work under better conditions than most other construction workers, although, the work is very labor intensive. Because carpets are installed in finished or nearly finished structures, work areas usually are clean, well lighted, safe, and comfortable. Installers kneel, reach, bend, stretch, and frequently lift heavy rolls of carpet. They also may move heavy furniture. Safety regulations may require that they wear knee pads or safety goggles when using certain tools.

Employment

Carpet installers held about 64,000 jobs in 1996. Many worked for flooring contractors or floor covering retailers. About 60 percent of all carpet installers were self-employed.

Although installers are employed throughout the Nation, they tend to be concentrated in urban areas where there are high levels of construction activity.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

The vast majority of carpet installers learn their trade informally, on the job, as helpers to experienced installers. Others learn through formal apprenticeship programs, which include on-the-job training as well as related classroom instruction.

Informal training is often sponsored by individual contractors and generally lasts from about 1 1/2 to 2 years. Helpers begin with simple assignments, such as installing stripping and padding, or helping stretch newly installed carpet. With experience, helpers take on more difficult assignments, such as measuring, cutting, and fitting.

Apprenticeship programs and some contractor-sponsored programs provide comprehensive training in all phases of carpet laying. Most apprenticeship programs are union sponsored and consist of weekly classes and on-the-job training usually lasting 3 to 4 years.

Persons who wish to begin a career in carpet installation as a helper or apprentice should be 18 years old and have good manual dexterity. Because carpet installers frequently deal directly with customers, they should be courteous and tactful. A High school diploma is preferred, though not necessary; courses in general mathematics and shop are helpful. Some employers may require a driver's license and a criminal background check.

Carpet installers may advance to positions as supervisors or installation managers for large installation firms. Some installers become salespersons or estimators. Many installers who begin working for a large contractor or installation firm also eventually go into business for themselves as independent subcontractors.

Job Outlook

Employment of carpet installers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2006. Growth will be due primarily to the continued need to renovate and refurbish existing structures, usually involving laying new carpet. Carpet as a floor covering continues to be popular and its usage is expected to grow in structures such as schools, offices, hospitals, and industrial plants.

Demand for carpet will also be stimulated by new, more durable fibers that are stain and crush resistant, and come in a wider variety of colors. More resilient carpet needs to be replaced less often, but these attractive new products may induce more people to replace their old carpeting, contributing further to the demand for carpet installers.

Job opportunities for carper installers are expected to be excellent as the growth in demand outpaces the supply of workers trained in this craft. This occupation is less sensitive to changes in economic conditions than most other construction occupations, because much of their work involves replacing carpet in existing buildings, and renovation work usually allows employment of carpet installers to remain relatively stable. In the many houses built with plywood, rather than hardwood floors, wall-to-wall carpeting is a necessity. Similarly, offices, hotels, and stores often cover concrete floors with wall-to-wall carpet, which must be periodically replaced.

Earnings

Median weekly earnings of all full-time carpet installers were about $476 in 1996. The middle 50 percent earned between $345 and $660 per week. The top 10 percent earned more than $874 and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $267.

Carpet installers are paid either on an hourly basis, or by the number of yards of carpet installed. The rates vary widely depending on the geographic location and whether the installer is affiliated with a union. Apprentices and other trainees usually start out earning about half of what an experienced worker earns, though their wage rate increases as they advance through the training program. Some installers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, or the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades.

als, include carpenters, cement masons, drywall installers, floor layers, lathers, painters and paperhangers, roofers, sheet-metal workers, terrazzo workers, and tilesetters.

Sources of Additional Information

For details about apprenticeships or work opportunities, contact local flooring contractors or retailers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the State employment service.

For general information about the work of carpet installers, contact: Floor Covering Installation Contractors Association, P.O. Box 948, Dalton, GA 30722-0948.

For information concerning training contact:

United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.

International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1750 New York Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20006.

Concrete Masons and Terrazzo
Workers

(D.O.T. 844.364-010, -014, .461-010, .684-010; and 861.381-046, and -050)

Significant Points

Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers will increase slowly as new technology makes these workers more productive.

Most learn their trade on the job, either through formal 3year apprenticeship programs or by working as helpers. Jobs are often outdoors and require a lot of bending and kneeling.

Nature of the Work

Concrete-a mixture of Portland cement, sand, gravel, and water-is used for many types of construction projects. Whether small jobs, such as patios and floors, huge dams or miles of roadway, concrete masons place and finish the concrete. They may also color concrete surfaces, expose aggregate (small stones) in walls and sidewalks, or fabricate concrete beams, columns, and panels.

Terrazzo workers create attractive walkways, floors, patios, and panels by exposing marble chips and other fine aggregates on the surface of finished concrete. Much of the preliminary work of terrazzo workers is similar to that of concrete masons.

In preparing a site for placing concrete, masons set the forms for holding the concrete to the desired pitch and depth and properly align them. They then direct the casting of the concrete and supervise laborers who use shovels or special tools to spread it. Masons then guide a straightedge back and forth across the top of the forms to "screed," or level, the freshly placed concrete. Immediately after leveling the concrete, masons carefully smooth the concrete surface with a "bull float," a long-handled tool about 8 by 48 inches that covers the coarser materials in the concrete and brings a rich mixture of fine cement paste to the surface.

After the concrete has been leveled and floated, finishers press an edger between the forms and the concrete and guide it along the edge and the surface. This produces slightly rounded edges and helps prevent chipping or cracking. They use a special tool called a "groover" to make joints or grooves at specific intervals that help control cracking. Next, finishers trowel the surface using either a powered or a hand trowel, a small, smooth, rectangular metal tool. Troweling removes most imperfections and brings the fine cement paste to the surface.

As the final step, masons retrowel the concrete surface back and forth with powered and hand trowels to create a smooth finish. For a coarse, nonskid finish, masons brush the surface with a broom or stiff-bristled brush. For a pebble finish, they embed small gravel

chips into the surface. They then wash any excess cement from the exposed chips with a mild acid solution. For color, they use colored premixed concrete. On concrete surfaces that will remain exposed after forms are stripped, such as columns, ceilings, and wall panels, concrete masons cut away high spots and loose concrete with hammer and chisel, fill any large indentations with a Portland cement paste and smooth the surface with a rubbing carborundum stone. Finally, they coat the exposed area with a rich Portland cement mixture using either a special tool or a coarse cloth to rub the concrete to a uniform finish.

Attractive, marble-chip terrazzo requires three layers of materials. First, concrete masons or terrazzo workers build a solid, level concrete foundation that is 3 to 4 inches deep. After the forms are removed from the foundation, workers place a 1-inch deep mixture of sandy concrete. Before this layer sets, terrazzo workers partially embed metal divider strips into the concrete wherever there is to be a joint or change of color in the terrazzo. These strips separate the different designs and colors of the terrazzo panels and help prevent cracks. For the final layer, terrazzo workers blend and place a fine marble chip mixture that may be color-pigmented into each of the panels, then hand trowel each panel until it is level with the tops of the ferrule strips. While the mixture is still wet, workers toss additional marble chips of various colors into each panel and roll a lightweight roller over the entire surface.

When the terrazzo is thoroughly dry, helpers grind it with a terrazzo grinder, which is somewhat like a floor polisher, only much heavier. Slight depressions left by the grinding are filled with a matching grout material and hand troweled for a smooth, uniform surface. Terrazzo workers then clean, polish, and seal the dry surface for a lustrous finish.

Employment

Concrete masons and terrazzo workers held about 137,000 jobs in 1996; terrazzo workers accounted for a very small proportion of the total. Most concrete masons worked for concrete contractors or for general contractors on projects such as highways, bridges, shopping malls, or large buildings such as factories, schools, and hospitals. A small number were employed by firms that manufacture concrete products. Most terrazzo workers worked for special trade contractors who install decorative floors and wall panels.

Fewer than 1 out of 10 concrete masons and terrazzo workers was self-employed, a smaller proportion than in other building trades. Most self-employed masons specialized in small jobs, such as driveways, sidewalks, and patios.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Concrete masons and terrazzo workers learn their trades either through on-the-job training as helpers or through 3-year apprenticeship programs. Many masons first gain experience as construction laborers.

When hiring helpers and apprentices, employers prefer high school graduates who are at least 18 years old, in good physical condition, and have a driver's license to drive. The ability to get along with others also is important because concrete masons frequently work in teams. High school courses in shop mathematics, blueprint reading, or mechanical drawing provide a helpful background.

On-the-job training programs consist of informal instruction from experienced workers in which helpers learn to use the tools, equipment, machines, and materials of the trade. They begin with tasks such as edging and jointing and using a straightedge on freshly placed concrete. As they progress, assignments become more complex, and trainees can usually do finishing work within a short time.

Three-year apprenticeship programs, usually jointly sponsored by local unions and contractors, provide on-the-job training in addition to a recommended minimum of 144 hours of classroom instruction each year. A written test and a physical exam may be required. In the classroom, apprentices learn applied mathematics, blueprint reading, and safety. Apprentices generally receive special instruction in layout work and cost estimating.

Experienced concrete masons or terrazzo workers may advance to become supervisors or contract estimators. Some open their own concrete contracting businesses.

Job Outlook

Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers is expected to grow slower than the average for all occupations through the year 2006. In addition to job openings that will stem from the rising demand for the services of these workers, other openings will become available as experienced workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force.

The demand for concrete masons and terrazzo workers will rise as the population and the economy grow. More masons will be needed to build highways, bridges, subways, factories, office buildings, hotels, shopping centers, schools, hospitals, and other structures. In addition, the increasing use of concrete as a building material-particularly in nonresidential construction-will add to the demand. More concrete masons also will be needed to repair and renovate existing highways, bridges, and other structures.

Employment growth of concrete masons and terrazzo workers, however, will not keep pace with the growth of these construction projects. Their productivity will increase as a result of the use of improved concrete pumping systems, continuous concrete mixers, quicker setting cement, troweling machines, prefabricated masonry systems, and other improved materials, equipment, and tools.

Employment of concrete masons and terrazzo workers, like that of many other workers, is sensitive to the flucuations of the economy. Workers in these trades may experience periods of unemployment when the level of nonresidential construction falls. On the other hand, shortages of these workers may occur in some areas during peak periods of building activity.

Earnings

Median weekly earnings of full-time concrete masons and terazzo workers were about $467 in 1997. The middle 50 percent earned between $375 and $650 per week. The top 10 percent earned more than $823, and the lowest 10 percent earned less than $286.

According to the limited information available, average hourly earnings including benefits-for concrete masons who belonged to a union and worked full time, ranged between $15.10 and $45.84 in 1996. Concrete masons in, New York, Boston, San Francisco, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and other large cities received the highest wages. Nonunion workers generally have lower wage rates than union workers. Apprentices usually start at 50 to 60 percent of the rate paid to experienced workers.

Concrete masons often work overtime, with premium pay, because once concrete has been placed, the job must be completed.

Annual earnings of concrete masons and terrazzo workers may be lower than the hourly rates suggest, because bad weather and downturns in construction activity may limit the time they can work.

Many concrete masons and terrazzo workers belong to the Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association of the United States and Canada, or to the International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen. Some terrazzo workers belong to the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of the United States.

Related Occupations

Concrete masons and terrazzo workers combine skill with knowledge of building materials to construct buildings, highways, and other structures. Other occupations involving similar skills and knowledge include bricklayers, form builders, marble setters, plasterers, stonemasons, and tilesetters.

Sources of Additional Information

For information about apprenticeships and work opportunities, contact local concrete or terrazzo contractors; locals of unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State employment service or apprenticeship agency.

For general information about concrete masons and terrazzo workers, contact:

Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, DC 20006.

☛ International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftsmen, International Masonry Institute Apprenticeship and Training, 815 15th St. NW., Suite 1001, Washington, DC 20005.

Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, DC 20036. National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association, 3166 Des Plaines Ave., Suite 132, Des Plaines, IL 60018.

Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, IL 60077. United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, DC 20001.

Drywall Workers and Lathers

(D.O.T. 842.361-010, -014, and -030, .664-010, .684-014; and 869.684-050)

Significant Points

Employment is projected to grow slowly, but thousands of job openings will arise annually because turnover is high.

Inclement weather seldom interrupts work, but workers may be idled when downturns in the economy slow new construction activity.

Most drywall workers and lathers learn the trade on the

job, either by working as helpers or through a formal apprenticeship.