TRANSITION OF THE ANGLO-SAXON INTO ENGLISH. § 76. "Nothing can be more difficult, except by an arbitrary line, than to determine the commencement of the English language; not so much, as in those on the Continent, because we are in want of materials, but rather from an opposite reason, the possibility of showing a very gradual succession of verbal changes that ended in a change of denomination. We should probably experience a similar difficulty if we knew equally well the current idiom of France or Italy in the seventh or eighth centuries; for when we compare the earliest English of the thirteenth century with the Anglo-Saxon of the twelfth, it seems hard to pronounce why it should pass for a separate language rather than a modification of the former. We must conform, however, to usage, and say that the Anglo-Saxon was converted into English: 1. By contracting and otherwise modifying the pronunciation and orthography of words. 2. By omitting many inflections, especially of the noun, and consequently making more use of articles and auxiliaries. 3. By the introduction of French derivatives. 4. By using less inversion and ellipsis, especially in poetry. Of these, the second alone, I think, can be considered as sufficient to describe a new form of language; and this was brought about so gradually, that we are not relieved of much of our difficulty as to whether some compositions shall pass for the latest offspring of the mother, or the earlier fruits of the daughter's fertility. It is a proof of this difficulty, that the best masters of our ancient language have lately introduced the word Semi-Saxon, which is to cover every thing from A.D. 1150 to A.D. 1250."-HALLAM's Introduction to the Literature of Europe, ch. i., p. 47. From this chapter the student can understand how the historical elements which enter into the composition of the English language were introduced. For a full exhibition of those elements themselves, and also of miscellaneous elements, changed though they often are, in order to conform to English analogies, see Part IV., on Etymological Forms. QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER III. 1. Give some account of the race from which the Celtic element was introduced into the English language. 2. Mention the two branches of the Celtic family, and the several divisions of each. 3. Mention the four classes of elements in the present English, with some examples. 4. To what class of objects in the British islands are Celtic words applied? 5. Give some account of the introduction of the Latin element into the En glish language. 6. Was the Latin element extensively introduced into the English language during the Celtic period? 7. What class of Latin words were chiefly introduced during the Celtic period? 8. What class of Latin words were introduced during the Saxon period? 9. What class of Latin words were introduced after the Norman Conquest, and what analogies do they follow? 10. Mention the occasion upon which the Saxons came into England, and at what time. 11. Give some account of the Saxon race. 12. Mention the names of the three tribes that came into England, and into what part, and at what time they severally came. 13. From what is the term England derived? 14. Who was a distinguished king of the West Saxons, and what is said of him? 15. What was the geographical position of the Jutes, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Frisians in their own country? 16. What objection has been made to the compound term Anglo-Saxon? 17. What was the character of the language spoken in England before the Norman Conquest? 18. Give some account of the race from which the Danish element was introduced into the English language. 19. How long did the Danes occupy the throne of England, and in what part of the country was this language especially introduced? 20. Give some account of the Anglo-Norman element, and by whom and when it was introduced. 21. By what classes was Norman-French spoken, and how long? 22. What causes operated to promote the currency of the Norman-French? 23. What effect was produced by a mixture of the races on the language? 24. To what classes of objects were Anglo-Norman words applied, and to what classes of objects were Anglo-Saxon words applied? 25. What can you say of the influence of the Norman Conquest upon the language? 26. What can you say of the transition of the Anglo-Saxon into English? CHAPTER IV. STAGES AND PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. § 77. SPECIMENS OF ANGLO-SAXON. From Cadmon, on the Creation, who died A.D. 680. Nu scylun hergan hefaen ricaes uard, metudaes maecti or astelidae. He aerist scop elda barnum heben til hrofe haleg scepen tha middun geard mon cynnaes uard eci dryctin aefter tiadae firum foldu frea allmectig. King Alfred's Version of Literal English Version. the same, about A.D. 885. Nu we sceolan herian metodes mihte frea aelmihtig. Now must we praise the Creator's might, formed the beginning. for the children of earth the heavens as a roof; holy Creator! then mid-earth the guardian of mankind, THE LORD'S PRAYER IN ANGLO-SAXON, WITH A GRAM MATICAL ANALYSIS. § 78. Fæder ure, thu the eart on heofenum, si thin nama gehalgod; to-becume thin rice; geweordhe thin willa on eorthan swa swa on heofenum. Urne ge dæghwamlican hlaf syle us to-dæg, and forgyf us ure gyltas swa swa we forgifadh urum gyltendum, and ne gelæde thu us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfle. Fæder, "father," the linguals d and th being interchanged, here in the vocative case. Ure, "our," possessive adjective pronoun. The English diphthong ou is substituted for the Anglo-Saxon long vowel û. Thu, "thou," the personal pronoun being inserted before the relative pronoun of the second person. Here, again, English ou =Anglo-Saxon û. The, "who," indeclinable relative pronoun. Eart, "art," 2d pers. sing. pres. indic. from wesan, "to be." On (whence English on), " in," here construed with the da tive. Heofenum, "the heavens," dative plural from heofen, "heaven." Si, "be," 3d pers. sing. pres. subjunct. from wesan, “to be." Thin, "thine," possessive adjective pronoun. Nama, "name," with final a formative of nouns, which is dropped in English. Gehalgod, "hallowed," past participle from gehalgian, "to hallow." To-becume, "let come," 3d pers. sing. pres. subjunct. from to-becuman, "to approach" or "come."-Thin, "thine," as before. Rice (comp. English ric in bishopric), "kingdom.” Geweordhe, "let be done," 3d pers. sing. pres. subjunct. from geweordhan, "to be done."-Thin, "thine," as before. Willa, with final a formative of nouns, which is dropped in English.-On, "in" or "on," here construed with the dative, as before. Eorthan, "earth," dative singular from eorthe, "earth." Swa, "so," demonstrative adverb of manner, used as a de-. monstrative.-Swa, "as," demonstrative adverb of manner, here used as a relative.-On heofenum, "in the heavens," as before. Urne, "our," possessive adjective pronoun in the accusative case singular. Ge, "also," conjunction. Daghwamlican, "daily," adjective in the accusative case singular. Hlaf (whence English loaf), "bread," in the accusative case. Syle, "give thou," 2d pers. sing. imper, from syllan (whence English to sell), "to give." Us, "to us," dative of we, "we." To-daæg, "to-day," adverb. And, "and," conjunction. Forgyf, "forgive thou," 2d pers. sing. imper. from forgifan, "to forgive.”—Us, "to us," as before. Ure, "our," in accusative plural. Gyltas, "debts," accusative plural, from gylt, "a debt.”— Swa swa, "so as," as before. We, "we." Forgifadh, "forgive," 1st pers. plur. pres. indic. from forgifan, "to forgive." Urum, "our," in dative plural. Gyltendum, "debtors," dative plural, from gyltend, “a debtor."-And, "and," as before. Ne, "not," adverb of negation. Gelæde, "lead," 2d per. sing. imper. from geladan, "to lead." -Thu, "thou," as before. Us, "us," accusative of we, "we." On, "into," here construed with an accusative. Costnunge," temptations," accusative plural, from costnung, "a temptation." Ac, "but," conjunction. Alys, "deliver thou," imper. from alysan, "to deliver.”— Us, "us," as before. Of (whence English of), " from," construed with the dative. Yfle, "evil," dative sing. from yfel, "evil." § 79. The term Semi-Saxon is applied to the language while it was going through the transition state from Saxon to English. It is characterized by its retaining the Saxon phraseology and the grammatical construction, while the words are rapidly changing their forms and softening down their terminations. [A Fragment, supposed to have been written about the year 1150.] Semi-Saxon. De wes bold gebyld er þu iboren were; ac hit nes no idiht ne peo deopnes imeten; Literal English. For thee was a house built Ere thou wast born; For thee was a mold appointed |