conditional clause is sometimes expressed by a question; as, "Is any man pinched with want, charity shall relieve him.”

As the conditioning clause usually precedes the conditioned, the former (the subordinate clause) is called the PROTASIS, Condition, and the latter (the principal clause) is called the APODOSIS, Conclusion. "If he visit Washington (Protasis) he will see the President" (Apodosis).

5. Relation of Manner; as, "He did that just as it ought to be done"=just right.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PROPOSITIONS.

§ 539. Language consists of propositions, the forms of which are almost endless.

I. The imperfect proposition, or that in which no logical subject is conceived of or expressed; as, "It rains;" "it is warm." Here the mere event is affirmed, without any reference to the agency by which it is effected. The pronoun it is merely the grammatical subject. The addition of a logical subject is necessary to make the proposition a perfect one. This kind of proposition is employed in describing the state of the weather and other operations of nature.

II. The simple or naked proposition, or the perfect proposition in its most simple form, contains a subject as well as a predicate; as, "God exists." This kind of proposition involves the predicative combination only, and not the attributive or objective.

The subject is capable of variation. It may be a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective used substantively, but these may be considered merely as varieties of the substantive.

The mode or mood of the predication is capable of variation. It may be affirmative, negative, interrogative, imperative, or conditional. But, to avoid perplexity, we shall here consider only the positive forms of language.

The different species of this proposition, so far as the predicate is concerned, are as follows:

1. Where the predicate is a verb; as, “Man dies."

2. Where the predicate is an adjective; as, "Man is mortal.” 3. Where the predicate is a substantive; as, "Charles is a physician."

as,

4. Where the predicate is a substantive with a preposition; "Paul was at Rome."

5. Where the predicate is an adverb; as, "The fire is out." III. The simple proposition, involving also the attributive combination, or the simple proposition with an enlarged subject ; as, "The good man is safe.”

This kind of proposition is capable of the variations given above of the simple proposition.

The different species of this proposition, so far as the attribute is concerned, are as follows:

1. Where the attribute is an adjective; as, "A beautiful woman is admired."

2. Where the attribute is a substantive in apposition; as, "Christ, the Savior, died."

3. Where the attribute is a substantive in the genitive case; as, "Cæsar's party was triumphant."

4. Where the attribute is a substantive with a preposition; as, "A friend to the cause is wanted."

IV. The simple proposition, involving also the objective combination, or the simple proposition with an enlarged predicate; as, “God created the world."

This kind of proposition is capable of the variations given above of the simple proposition.

The different species of this proposition, so far as the object is concerned, are as follows:

1. Involving the complementary object:

a. The passive object; as, "Alexander conquered Darius." b. The dative object; as, "John gave the book to Charles."

c. The genitive object; as, "He repents of his folly."

d. The factitive object; as, "They chose him king."

2. Involving the supplementary object:

a. The place; as, "Charles lives here," "John is gone to Boston."

b. The time; as, "John is now departing;" "He rose before sunrise."

c. The cause; as, "Socrates died from poison;" "She spoke from malice;" "A bird is known from its feathers."

d. The manner; as, "He thinks so;" "He eats temperately." V. The simple proposition, involving also both the attribu

tive and objective combination; as, "A good man governs his passions." This kind of proposition exhibits all the syntactical combinations. See Article on the Three Syntactical Combinations.

The forms of this proposition are almost endlessly diversified. VI. The proposition intermediate between the simple and compound, or the proposition involving a participial. The different species are as follows:

1. Where the participial is a participle; as, "He answering said."

2. Where the participial is a gerund, or a participle used adverbially; as, "He came riding."

3. Where the participial is a nominative absolute; as, “The enemy advancing, he retreated."

4. Where the participial is a supine, or an infinitive with a preposition; as, "He prepared to go."

5. Where the participial is an accusative and infinitive or supine; as, "He bade him stay," "I advised him to go."

VII. The subordinative compound or complex proposition, in which one proposition is dependent on or subordinate to the other. The different species are as follows:

1. Having a substantive subordinate proposition:

a. Denoting the subject; as, "That God exists is true." b. Denoting the immediate complement; as, "We know that God exists."

c. Denoting the second complement; as, "The Bible teaches us that God is love."

2. Having an adjective subordinate proposition, answering to an adjective in the simple proposition; as, "Balbus, who had a sword, drew it."

3. Having an adverbial subordinate proposition, denoting an object, not complementary, but supplementary to the verb of the leading proposition:

a. Expressing the place; as, "Where thou lodgest, I will lodge."

b. Expressing the time; as, "Whensoever ye will, ye may do them good."

c. Expressing the cause; as, "Because he could swear by no greater, he sware by himself."

d. Expressing the manner; as, "Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors."

e. Expressing intensity; as, "One is so near to another that no air can come between them."

VIII. The co-ordinative compound proposition, where the two propositions are co-ordinate or independent of each other, but still make but one thought. The species are as follows:

1. The copulative compound proposition, the appropriate conjunction for which is and; as, "The sun shines, and the air is pleasant."

2. The adversative compound proposition, the appropriate conjunction for which is but; as, "He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman;" yet; as, "The sun shines, yet the air is unpleasant;" or or; as, "Either the world had a Creator, or it existed by chance."

3. The causal compound proposition, the appropriate conjunction for which is for; as, "God is to be loved, for he is good;" or therefore; as, "God is good, therefore he is to be loved."

Note. When a relation of the logical or adversative ground exists between the members of the co-ordinative or subordinative compound proposition, as in some of the examples given above, then the whole compound proposition is brought under the dominion of a higher faculty of the human soul, namely, the reasoning power, and is called a period.

IX. The compound period, involving two or more simple periods: "As we perceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not perceive it moving; and it appears that the grass has grown, though nobody ever saw it grow; so the advances we make in knowledge, as they consist of such minute steps, are only perceivable by the distance."

SPECIMENS OF SENTENCES.

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

1. Reason guides. Here we have a simple subject and a simple predicate.

2. Reason cultivated guides. Here we have a modified subject. 3. Reason cultivated with care guides. Here there is a further modification.

4. Reason cultivated with great care guides.

5. Reason cultivated with great care, for many years, guides. 6. Reason cultivated with great care, for many years, in the best circumstances, guides.

7. Reason guides man. Here the predicate is modified.

8. Reason guides man in his path. Here is farther modification.

9. Reason guides man in his path through life.

10. Reason guides man in his path through life in all his doubts and difficulties.

These sentences are Declarative and Direct.

11. Does reason guide man? This is Interrogative and Indirect.

12. How admirable is reason as a guide compared with instinct! This is Exclamatory and Indirect.

13. Let reason guide you. This is Imperative and Indirect. In a direct sentence, the subject comes before the verb; in an indirect sentence, the subject comes after the verb.

14. What is the use of it? is the first question asked in England by almost every body about almost every thing. This is a simple sentence, in which the question is the subject, which is itself a sentence.

1. Man proposes and God disposes. This is a Copulative Coordinate sentence.

2. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there. This is an Adversative Co-ordinate sentence.

3. He neither was brave nor was he generous. This is a Disjunctive Co-ordinate sentence.

4. He was always punctual in his payments, and therefore he was in good credit. This is a Causal Co-ordinate sentence. See § 537.

In those compound sentences which are sometimes called complex, there is always a subordinate sentence. See § 538.

5. It is a law of nature that water should congeal by cold. The second sentence is a Substantive sentence. See § 538. 6. The man who is prudent-looks to the future. The sentence who is prudent is an Adjective sentence. See § 538. 7. When he has finished his lesson-he goes out to play. The first is an Adverbial sentence relating to time. See § 538.