PART VI. SYNTACTICAL FORMS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. CHAPTER I. DEFINITIONS. § 476. SYNTAX, from the Greek our, with, rážıç, arrangement, treats of the arrangement and combination of words in propositions and sentences. Etymology deals with the forms of single words, and teaches the office and power of the different parts of speech. Syntax deals with groups of words, and teaches how to combine the several parts of speech together in propositions and sentences. SYNTACTICAL FORMS are combinations of words viewed only in their relation to each other, according to the laws of the language. Thus "Of government" is a syntactical form, in which the preposition governs the noun. "A wise son" is a syntactical form, in which the article "a" and the adjective "wise" belong to the substantive "son." Syntactical forms are either sentences, or members, or clauses, or phrases, or any two words related to each other in the way of agreement and government. CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another in Gender, Number, Case, or Person. GOVERNMENT is that power which one word has over another in directing its Mode, Tense, or Case. CONVERTIBILITY.-In Syntax, one part of speech is often used for another, and may therefore be said to be convertible, as in this example, To err is human error is human. The combination to err is an Infinitive verb, and yet it is converted from its primary use into a noun. In like manner, the Participle is used as a substantive; as, Erring is dangerous error is dangerous. The Adjective is converted into a substantive; as, The evils of life; the goods of fortune. So an Adverb, a Preposition, or a Conjunction can be used for a noun; as, One long now present time; he said from, not lo; none of your ifs. In these examples, now, from, and if are used as Substantives. In like manner, a Preposition can be converted into an Adjective; as, A through ticket. GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENTS.-When one phrase or word can take the place of another phrase or word in a sentence without materially changing the meaning of the sentence, it is a Grammatical equivalent of the other: To err is human=error is huThe sign of equality used in mathematics (=) is the sign in grammar for Grammatical equivalents. See § 540. man. A SENTENCE is the expression of a thought in words. A declarative sentence is the same as a proposition. Sentences may consist either of one proposition, or of two or more propositions connected together. A sentence consisting of one proposition is called a Simple Sentence; as, "I study my lesson." A sentence consisting of two or more propositions is called a Compound Sentence; as, "Industry procures a competence, and frugality preserves it." Sentences are Declarative; as, "I am writing." Interrog ative; as, "Where am I?" Imperative; as, "Be quiet." Conditional; as, "If he should grieve." Exclamatory; as, "O wretched man that I am!" For a more full account of sentences, see § 531. THE RELATION OF SYNTAX TO LOGIC. § 477. So closely connected is Grammar with Logic, the former having originally grown out of the latter, that a thorough knowledge of syntactical forms can not be acquired without a previous knowledge of certain logical forms and logical terms. Part Fifth of this work is, therefore, to be viewed as strictly subsidiary and preparatory to Part Sixth. To that part the student is referred especially for the Definition of such Names as TERMS, SIMPLE TERMS, COMPLEX TERMS, PROPOSITION, COMPLEX PROPOSITION, COMPOUND PROPOSITION. GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT. § 478. The GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT is the same as the Logical Subject, when the latter is a simple term or single word; as, "God is great." Here the Grammatical Subject of the verb is and the Logical Subject are the same, namely, God. When the Logical Subject is complex, consisting of a combination of words, the Grammatical Subject is the leading word in that combination. "ALEXANDER, the son of Philip, was the conqueror of Darius." Here Alexander, the son of Philip, is the Logical Subject, being a complex term; and Alexander, the leading word, is the Grammatical Subject. ALEXANDER, who conquered Darius, was the son of Philip. who conquered Darius, is the Logical Subject, and Alexander is the Grammatical Subject. The Grammatical Subject is either a Noun, or some word standing for a noun. The Logical Subject consists of the Grammatical Subject and its various modifications. GRAMMATICAL Here Alexander, PREDICATE. § 479. The GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE (Latin predicare, to assert) is the same as the Logical Predicate, when the Logical Predicate is contained in a common verb, or when the Logical Predicate is a simple term or single word; as, "He runs ;" "he is an orator;" "he is wise." Here the Grammatical predicates are the same as the Logical predicates. But when the Logical Predicate is a complex term, and made up of a combination of words, the Grammatical Predicate is the leading word in that combination; as, "The Scriptures are worthy of our confidence." Here worthy of our confidence is the Logical Predicate, and worthy is the Grammatical Predicate. The Grammatical Predicate is contained in a common verb, which also contains the copula; or else is a Noun or an Adjective, or what stands for a noun or an adjective, with the Substantive verb as a copula. A Logical Predicate is the Grammatical Predicate with its modifications. See § 535. Of a subject we may predicate, 1. An action; as, "He loves.” 2. A quality; as, "Gold is heavy." 3. Identity; as, "Iron is a mineral." In these three cases there is, in the first, a verb; in the second, an adjective; in the third, a substantive. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. § 480. I. ELLIPSIS, Greek #22epic, an omission, is the omission of some word or words in a sentence necessary to a full and K K regular construction; as, "The heroic virtues I admire :" which is here omitted. "He (Marat) three times changed the title of his journal; its spirit, never." Here he changed is omitted. "Better be hurried forward for a season on the wings of the tempest, than stagnate in a death-like calm, fatal alike to intellectual and moral progress."-Prescott. II. ZEUGMA, Greek Sevypa, a joining, is a species of ellipsis by which an adjective or verb which is put in construction with a nearer word is, by way of supplement, referred to one more remote; as, "They wear a garment like that of the Scythians, but a language peculiar to themselves.” III. PLEONASM, Greek hɛovaouós, fullness, is a redundancy of words: "Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the universal esteem and love of all men." Here universal is redundant, or the and of all men are redundant. IV. ENALLAGE, Greek ¿vaλλayý, change, is the use of one gender, number, case, person, tense, mode, or voice for another; as, "He begun to write," for "he began to write." V. HYPERBATON, Greek vπÉρbаTоv, transgression, is the transposition of words out of their natural and grammatical order; as, "All price beyond," instead of "beyond all price." VI. HYPALLAGE, Greek vaλλayý, change, is an interchange of construction; as, "His coward lips did from their color fly,” instead of "the color did fly from his coward lips." VII. ANASTROPHE, Greek dvao-pop, inversion, is a species of Hyperbaton, by which we place last, and perhaps at a great distance, what, according to the common order, should have been placed first. The beginning of Paradise Lost is an example of that figure: "Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Restore us and regain the blissful seat, The natural order of the words in this passage is, Heavenly VIII. HYSTERON PROTERON, Greek vorepov, latter, πрóτεроν, former, is a species of Hyperbaton, by which that which is first done is last mentioned; as, "He was bred and born in Boston," "Our father is in good health; he is yet alive." QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER I. 1. What is syntax as distinguished from etymology? 2. What are syntactical forms? 3. What is concord? What is government? 4. What is convertibility? Give illustrations. 5. What is a grammatical equivalent? 6. What is a sentence, and what kinds of sentences are there? Give illustrations. 7. What is ellipsis? with illustrations; and zeugma? with illustrations; pleonasm? with illustrations; enalloge? with illustrations; hyperbaton? with illustrations; hypallage? with illustrations; anastrophe? with illustrations; hysteron proteron? with illustrations. 8. Can a thorough knowledge of syntactical forms be obtained with a previous knowledge of certain logical forms? Why not? 9. State the difference between a logical subject and a grammatical subject, and illustrate each. 10. State the difference between the logical predicate and the grammatical predicate, and illustrate each. EXERCISES UNDER CHAPTER I. Name the following sentences, according to § 476: "He loves his country." "Life is short, and art is long." "He spoke with energy." "Will he visit Palestine?" "Be "What faithful unto death." "If he should arrive in time." converse passed between us two in all those shadowy solitudes!" Point out first the Propositions, next the Logical Subject and Predicate, and then the Grammatical Subject and Predicate in each of the following sentences: 1. The Christian ministry is the worst of all trades, but the best of all professions. MODEL a. Here are two propositions. The Christian ministry is the Logical Subject of each proposition, expressed or understood. The worst of all trades is the Logical Predicate of the first, and the best of all professions is the Logical Predicate of the second. The Grammatical Subject of the two prop |