CHAPTER III.

THE PROPOSITION.

§ 449. A PROPOSITION is a sentence in which something is affirmed or denied of something else. A proposition defined logically is a "Sentence assertive," i. e., affirming or denying, "Sentence" being the Genus, and "assertive" the difference. This definition expresses the whole essence, and it relates entirely to the words of a proposition.

In a proposition there are two somethings, the something spoken about and the something said concerning it. Thus, in the proposition Gold is yellow, the quality, property, or attribute expressed by the word yellow is affirmed of the substance gold, so that yellow is one part of the proposition, and gold another.

Again, in the proposition ice is not hot, the property, quality, or attribute expressed by the word hot is denied of ice. Ice, therefore, is one part of the proposition, and hot another.

But to say Gold yellow is to employ words to no purpose. The combination conveys no meaning. There are only two separate somethings. The expression is imperfect. It needs a bond to connect them together.

Hence every proposition consists of three parts:

I. The SUBJECT. The thing concerning which we make a statement, whether in the way of affirmation or denial, is called the Subject. In the examples above, gold, ice, are subjects, and we can assert of them that they are yellow or hot, or else that they are not so, i. e., that they are not yellow, not hot. In the first case, the proposition is Affirmative; in the second, Negative.

II. The PREDICATE. The thing which we connect with the subject is the Predicate: Yellow, hot, are predicates. They are asserted or predicated of the subjects gold, ice.

III. The COPULA. That part of a proposition which connects the subject and predicate is called the Copula. It is the word which serves as a sign to denote the existence of either an affirmation or a denial. Man-mortal: Each of these words now stands isolated from the other. Place between them the magical

Нн

word is, and the twain become one proposition. In this case the copula is affirmative. In the proposition man is not mortal, the copula is negative. See § 452.

EXERCISE.

Form propositions by supplying the parts that are wanting in the following pairs: 1. The Copula to the subject and predicate: Summer-pleasant; Autumn-sober; Winter-sighing; Spring a season. 2. The Predicate to the subject and copula: The air is-; The sky is-; The snow was-; The storm was-. 3. The Subject to the copula and predicate: —is brave; -was a hero; —is honorable; -was a coward.

THE PARTS OF A PROPOSITION

THREE.

NOT MORE THAN

§ 450. In the proposition the sun (is) shining, we have a Simple proposition. We readily see that there are but three parts. But it must be evident to every one who reflects upon either what he hears or reads, that propositions are in reality much less simple than they have been described as being. If propositions are so short, how is it that sentences are so long? If subjects and predicates are so simple, how became periods so complex ?

The fact is, that both subjects and predicates may be made complex by the addition of subordinate parts. A term may consist of several words:

The sun (is) shining.

The early sun (is) brightly shining.

The early sun, with glad beams, (is) brightly shining through

the air.

The early sun, with glad beams, having awakened the traveler, (is) brightly shining through the air upon his path.

Terms like those of the last three examples are called Mixed terms. The objects which they express are called objects of complex Apprehension, in opposition to objects of simple apprehension, like the sun, etc. The names of objects of complex apprehension (i. e., mixed terms) are sometimes called Many-worded Names.

Again, one proposition may be subordinate to another; in

other words, a whole proposition may enter into the structure of many-worded names, e. g.,

1. The man (is) returning,

2. Who was sent to market.

Combine these, and they form but a single designation or name. Thus, the man who was sent to market (is) returning. The words, the man who was sent to market, form but a single name or term. See LATHAM's Outlines.

THE PARTS OF A PROPOSITION

THREE.

NOT FEWER THAN

§ 451. Apparent contradictions to the statement that the parts of a Proposition are not fewer than three, are of two sorts. The first is referable to the practice of language, more or less general; the second to the seeming properties of the copula.

1. a. The Predicate and Copula may be contained in one word; e. g., instead of saying fire is burning, we may say, as we generally do, fire burns. In this case the grammatical form of the proposition does not coincide with the logical form; nevertheless, as it is clear that the shorter and more compendious form is capable of being resolved into the longer one, the statement, that the parts of a proposition are no fewer than three, may still hold good.

b. The Subject and Copula may be contained in one word. The Latin proposition, est bonus he is good, exemplifies this. c. The Subject, Copula, and Predicate may be contained in one word, as in the Latin voco=I am calling.

2. The seeming properties of the Copula.-Many logicians have considered that, when the predicate implies simple existence, it is expressed by the copula alone, as in such expressions as God is.

This error arises from the word is being a copula and something more. It superadds to its power of denoting the agreement or disagreement between the subject and predicate the notion of existence. The essentially relative character of the copula is, moreover, a proof of the erroneousness of the view indicated.

In the Hebrew language the copula is commonly omitted, and in the Greek this is very often the case. This is merely one

proof out of many that the structure of propositions in language does not always coincide with the structure of propositions in logic.

Questions of Appeal are implied propositions, being plainly equivalent either to affirmative or negative ones. Thus, “Who would be insane enough, without the hope of future recompense, to undertake constant labor?" is equivalent to "No one would be (insane enough, without the hope of future recompense, to undertake constant labor)."

Propositions which do not explicitly contain the copula may be easily resolved into those which do. Thus, "Gold surpasses all metals in brilliancy" may be stated, "Gold is superior to all metals in brilliancy." In this case we distinguish the copula from the predicate.

1. Where the substantive verb is introduced by the adverb there, it is itself both copula and predicate, being equivalent to exist: "There is no flesh in man's obdurate heart." See § 506.

2. The Subject will sometimes succeed the predicate, though its common order is to precede it. In this case it is often represented at the beginning of the sentence by the pronoun it; as, It is (to be hoped) that we shall succeed. Hence it represents the subject, that we shall succeed.

EXERCISE I.

Point out the Subject and the Predicate in the following examples:

1. (To tell all that we think) is inexpedient.

2. "Better (to reign in hell than serve in heaven.)"

3. It is unlawful to kill an innocent man.

4. Rising early is healthful.

5. There is (no such thing as witchcraft.)

6. There can be no natural desire of artificial good.

7. "Sweet is the breath of morn."

EXERCISE II.

Express the following propositions in strict logical form, making the Copula, when necessary, apparent, and distinguish the Subject and Predicate:

1. Are such abilities as those of man made for no purpose? 2. Remorse follows disobedience.

3. A philosopher should understand Geometry.

4. True friendship has a tendency to secure veracity. 5. Who is pleased to have his all neglected?

DIVISION OF PROPOSITIONS.

§ 452. 1. CATEGORICAL Propositions are those which are expressed absolutely; as, Cæsar was a tyrant.

HYPOTHETICAL Propositions are those which are expressed conditionally; as, If Cæsar was a tyrant, he deserved death.

2. Propositions are divided, according to their Quality, into AFFIRMATIVE and NEGATIVE; as, Birds fly; man is not perfect. An affirmative proposition is one whose copula is affirmative, as in the first example. A negative proposition is one whose copula is negative, as in the second example.

3. Propositions are divided, according to their Quantity, into UNIVERSAL and PARTICULAR; as, England is an island; All tyrants are miserable; No spendthrift is happy. These are Universal propositions. The Subject in each of these proposi tions is taken Universally, as standing for any thing and every thing that the term is capable of being applied to in the same A term so taken is said to be "distributed."

sense.

Some islands are fertile; All tyrants are not assassinated, are Particular propositions. The Subject in each of these propositions is taken Particularly, as standing only for part of the things signified by it, and the term is said to be UNDISTRIBUTED. The words all, every, as in the last example, when prefixed to Negative propositions, are not to be considered as signs of universality. For all tyrants are not assassinated is equivalent to some tyrants are not assassinated. This last is evidently a Particular and not a Universal proposition. Singular propositions, as when a proper name is used, are reckoned as Universals; as, Brutus was a Roman, i. e., the whole of Brutus.

1. A Universal Affirmative: All cowards are cruel. U. A. 2. A Universal Negative: No coward is cruel. U. N. 3. A Particular Affirmative: Some kings are assassinated. P. A.

4. A Particular Negative: All kings are not assassinated. P. N.