CHAPTER X. INTERJECTIONS. § 381. AN INTERJECTION is a word which can neither form the part of a proposition, nor connect two different propositions, but is thrown in to express some sudden thought or emotion of the mind; as, oh! pshaw! alas! The word Interjection is from the Latin word interjectio, a throwing in, and is not in grammatical construction with a sentence. 1. Of the interjections, some are Primitive or original, others are Derived from other parts of speech. The primitive interjections are a sort of universal language, yet not without some variety in different tongues. The derived interjections vary, of course, in different languages. 2. Primitive interjections, with which we are principally concerned, are all formed by onomatopoeia. a. Some of them result from the position into which the vocal and articulating organs have a tendency to be thrown by the muscular action of the face and other parts in those movements which constitute the natural gestures or signs of emotions. This tendency is more or less indefinite. Hence, in the first place, the resulting word for the same emotion may be different in different languages, according to the habits of articulation which accompany the several languages; and, in the second place, the same interjection, like words in Chinese, may subserve different purposes, according to the intonation. Thus pain, accompanied with languor or grief, relaxes all the muscles, and the mouth being consequently open, with the other organs in their usual state, the sound ah is produced with a monotonous and feeble intonation, and degenerating into a mere groan. Sharp and sudden pain, on the contrary, throws the muscles into a state of tension round the lips, and produces oh, with the breath drawn in, and the semitonic intonation described by Dr. RUSH. Surprise raises the brows and opens the mouth suddenly; hence Ah, with an abrupt and upward tone, expresses that emotion. Wonder or astonishment rounds the lips; hence results the interjection Oh! with a downward intonation. Contempt is accompanied with a protrusion of the lips; hence it is expressed by pish, pshaw. b. Other primitive interjections result from the imitation of objective or outward sounds. For instance, shoo, shoo, which is used in driving away poultry, was probably suggested by the rustling of their wings when they ran away suddenly; sheep and lambs are called by the cry of knan, knan, in imitation of the sound which they make in running to be fed; dogs are called to persons by sucking the breath through the lips, in imitation of the cry of puppies. To the onomatopoeia may also be referred such interjections as hush, 'st, whist, used to enjoin stillness and silence, as they all consist merely in atonic or whispering sounds. 3. Derived interjections are either (1.) terms descriptive of the emotion, with appropriate intonations; as, Horrid! shocking! joy! (2.) names, common and proper, used in addressisg animals; (3.) verbs in the imperative mode; as, Hark! see! behold! help! halt! or nouns used as imperatives, by means of the intonation; as, Silence! peace! courage! or adverbs, used in like manner for the imperative; as, Softly! away! or (4.) abbreviated forms, used particularly by the vulgar; as, Gramercy (French grand merci, great thanks); I marry (for ay Mary); 's death (for by his death). 4. Interjections have not, in our common grammars, assumed the importance nor obtained the scientific treatment which they deserve. For if we regard language as originating in and related to our intellectual faculties only, then interjections lose their claim to be considered parts of speech. But if we consider language in its broadest sense, as arising from our whole spiritual nature, interjections have a just claim to be considered an integral part of language. The fact that interjections express the multiplied emotions of the human mind, and lend their aid where all other language fails in this respect; that they are the only medium of intercourse between man and the brute creation, or of animals with each other; and that they are a natural universal language, is sufficient to exhibit their importance in a philosophic view. There can be no doubt that interjections, rightly used, contribute much to render language an exact picture of the human mind. 5. Some interjections are the same in languages very remote from each other, as the following examples will show: Greek w, Latin O, Gothic o, English O, Syriac o, to call attention. Greek pev, Latin phy, English fie, French fi, Arabic uffu, to express aversion. Greek ovaí, Latin vai, Gothic var, English woe, Hebrew vi, hoi, Arabic wa, to express grief. Latin Ah, English Ah, Hebrew ach, Arabic ah, to express grief. English interjections are divided into, I. Natural exclamations, expressing passion or emotion, including, 1. Passive emotions, in which the human mind is overpowered: (1.) wonder or amazement; as, Oh, pronounced with a downward inflection; (2.) pain, grief, or lamentation; as, Ah, Oh, woe, alas ; (3.) loathing or aversion; as, Fie, pish, pshaw, tysh, ugh (guttural). 2. Emotions under which the mind is still active: (1.) surprise or admiration; as, Heigh, hoity-toity; (2.) joy or exultation; as, Huzza, hurra, joy; (3.) desire; as, O; (4.) laughter; as, Ha ha; or tittering; as, Hi hi; (5.) threatening; as, Woe. II. Natural exclamations, expressing a state of the will, addressed to our fellow-men, or else employed to allure or drive away domestic animals. 1. Addressed to our fellow-men: (1.) calling attention generally; as, O, ho, halloo; (2.) enjoining silence; as, Hush, 'st, whist; (3.) calling attention to a particular object; as, Lo, behold, see. 2. Addressed to cows; as, Coh, coh. 3. Addressed to goats and sheep; as, Knan, knan. 4. Addressed to dogs; a whistle made by sucking the breath through the teeth. 5. Addressed to cats; as, Minny, minny; also scat. 6. Addressed to pigs; as, Pig, pig; also shogh, shogh. 7. Addressed to draught cattle; as, Haw, jee, hwo. III. Imitations of natural sounds, whether of animals or of inanimate objects. 1. Of animals: (1.) of cows; as, Moo; (2.) of dogs; as, Bow wow; (3.) of chickens; as, Peep, peep; (4.) of geese; as, Quack. 2. Of inanimate objects; as, of a bell, Ding dong; of a clock or watch, Tick, tick; of a drum, Row de dow dow; of a knocking at the door, Rat a tat tat; of a trumpet, Tantara, tantara; of removing a trumpet from the mouth, Bat, &c. IV. Imitations of visible appearances; as, Flash, zigzag. Other parts of speech are sometimes formed from interjections; as, To puff at, from puff; to ache, from Ah; the noun woe, from interjection woe. QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER X. 1. Give the definition of an interjection, and the origin of the term. CHAPTER XI. DERIVATION. $ 382. DERIVATION has been defined to be the drawing or tracing of a word from its root or original. In the grammatical sense, the cases, numbers, and genders of nouns; the persons, modes, and tenses of verbs; the ordinal numbers; the degrees of comparison are regarded as matters of derivation. But derivation proper comprises only those changes that words undergo which are not referable to some of the heads just mentioned. It is in this latter sense that the word is employed in this chapter. Derivation in this sense, and historical etymology, are sometimes used as convertible terms. Derivation, used in the widest sense, includes both classes of changes. In this sense, every word, except it be in the simple form of the root, is a derived word. THE CONSTITUENT ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH 383. The English tongue, as it now exists, is not a pure, simple language, derived from one source, but it is made up of many languages. The constituent parts or elements of the English language are the Anglo-Saxon basis, inherited from our ancestors; extensive admixtures from three dead languages, viz., the Latin, the Greek, and the Hebrew; exotic or foreign terms from various living languages; and words of mixed origin. I. The Anglo-Saxon portion of the language is its basis or groundwork. Although the vocabulary of such words is comparatively small, yet it embraces all the pronouns and pronominal words; all the numerals, cardinal and ordinal, except second; all the primary particles; all the terminations necessary for the inflection of substantives, the comparison of adjectives, and the conjugation of verbs, as well as most of the verbs, adjectives, and substantives in common use. Hence whole paragraphs may easily be written with this part of the language only, while without it hardly a sentence can be formed. The Anglo-Saxon language belongs to the Gothic or Teutonic family of languages, of which the German, Dutch, Danish, and Swedish are also branches. With the Anglo-Saxon there was, without doubt, an intermixture of the Celtic, but it is not easy now to make the separation. II. Admixtures from three dead languages, viz., the Latin, the Greek, and the Hebrew. 1. The admixture of words from the ancient Latin is owing to the conquest of England by the Normans, who spoke Norman-French; to the subsequent close intercourse with the French people; and to the influence of the learned class, who studied Latin, and wrote in that language. What is owing to each of these influences severally it is difficult now to determine, nor is it necessary. A few Latin words had already passed into the Anglo-Saxon, which we have also inherited. This portion of our language is very considerable, whether we regard the number or the length of the words. As the English language is now studied, these words are imperfectly appreciated by those who have not learned Latin. To the Latin family of languages belong the existing languages, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French. 2. The admixture of words from the ancient Greek is owing, for the most part, to a conventional usage among the learned of Europe, speaking different languages, of forming scientific and technical terms from the ancient Greek. A few Greek words had already passed into the Latin, or into the Teutonic directly, which have also come down to us. This portion of our language is also considerable. To the common English mind these words are now so many proper names. New facilities are wanting to explain them to the young. The ancient Greek, as a spoken language, has now been superseded by the modern Greek. 3. Admixture of words from the ancient Hebrew. Although the Hebrew, as a spoken language, has never come in direct contact with the English, being far removed from it both in time and space, yet, through the sacred writings and other influences, the number of words derived by us from the Hebrew is not few. The Hebrew belongs to the Shemitish family of languages, of which the Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic are also branches. III. Exotic or foreign terms from various living languages, owing В в |