The lingual nasal n occurs in the name of the organ concerned; as, Latin nasus, English nose.

VIII. The Dentals s, sh, z, and zh.

The name sibilants given to this class of letters sufficiently indicates their import; compare Latin sibilo.

Ss final denotes sharp sounds; as, English hiss, siss, whisper, whistle.

Z final denotes sounds less sharp; as, English whiz, buzz.

Sh final denotes silence; as, hush; also, sounds or sights which break off suddenly; as, English clash, crash, flash, splash.

Sh initial expresses aversion; as, German scheu, English shy; English pshaw; shogh.

IX. The Palatal Mutes c or k, g, kh, and gh.

The import of the palatals is the least definite. Yet the atonic k is justly supposed to have a natural appropriateness to perform the function of an interrogative; as, Sanscrit kas, Greek koç (whence KÓTEρоç), Latin quis, Maso-Gothic hwas, Lithuanian kas, Russian koi, Gaelic co, who? A palatal is also found in words denoting hollowness and holding; as, Greek koiλoç (whence Latin cœlum); Latin cavus, capio.

X. The Lingual Mutes t, d, th, and dh.

1. The lingual, whether atonic or subtonic, has a natural adaptedness to perform the function of a demonstrative; as, Sanscrit tat, it, tataras, one of two; Greek TÓ, TOUTO, TÓσOS, TOìos, &c.; Latin tantus, tot, talis, &c.; Lithuanian tas, ta, to, that; Gothic thata, that; German der, die, das, this; English that, this, &c.

2. The lingual is also found in three families of words, very extensively diffused through the Indo-European languages, each of which has the general import of pointing or demonstrating; as, (1.) Sanscrit tan, Greek Tavúw, Tɛivw, Latin teneo, tendo, German dehnen, Russian tianu, English tend. (2.) Sanscrit dis', Greek deíkw, Latin dico, doceo, German zeigen, Irish teagasgaim, English teach. (3.) Sanscrit da, Greek dów, didwu, Latin do, Lithuanian dumi, Russian daiu, to give.

XI. The Labial Mutes p, b, ph, and v.

1. The labials, from the ease with which they are enounced, have been employed to denote the first objects which interest the child; as, Sanscrit pitar, Zendish paitar, Persian padar, Greek Tárηp, Latin

pater, Russian batia, German vater, English father, Turkish peder; also, English papa.

2. They denote fullness or extension, from their swelling the cheeks; as, Greek πλéos, πλńρns, Latin pleo, plenus, German füllen, voll, English fill, full.

3. They also express aversion, from their puffing or blowing; as, Arabic uffu, Greek pɛu, Latin phy, English fie, poh.

XII. The Mixed Consonants tsh and dzh.

These consonants are introduced here for the sake of showing the difference between the physiological and the etymological development of sounds.

Tsh in English (where it is expressed by ch) is not an original sound, but has arisen, in the mutation of languages, from other sounds; as, chaff, from Anglo-Saxon ceaf; chalice, from Latin calix; change, from French changer; cheek, from Anglo-Saxon cede; cherry, from Latin cerasus; cherish, from French cherir; child, from AngloSaxon cild; chief, from French chef; chimney, from Latin caminus; choose, from Anglo-Saxon ceosan; chuck, from French choquer; church, from Anglo-Saxon circ. So tsh in Italian (where it is expressed by c before e and i) has arisen from the Latin c; as, Cicero (pronounced tshitshero), from Latin Cicero (pronounced kikero). Hence we have no occasion to investigate the import of tsh in modern languages. Its meaning, as an original sound in ancient Sanscrit, lies too remote for our present purpose.

Dzh in English, so far as it is expressed by g, is derived from the Latin g, which had a hard sound; and, so far as it is expressed by j, is derived from the Latin j, and ultimately from the Sanscrit y. Hence all inquiry as to the import of our modern dzh is superseded.

XIII. Consonants in Combination.

We shall perceive the natural force of the letters to better advantage by taking some of them in combination.

Bl and fl denote blowing, blooming, and flowing; as, Latin flo, German blähen, blasen, English blow, blaze, blast, bluster, blister, bladder; Greek pλóos, Latin flos, floreo, German blühen, blüthe, bloom, English flower, flourish, bloom, blossom; Greek pλéw, pλíw, pλúw, Latin fluo, German fliessen, fluth, English flow, flood; Latin fleo, to weep.

Cl or kl denotes cleaving or adhering; as, English cleave, clay (adhesive earth), cling, clinch, clutch, climb (whence clamber), clot (whence clod), clasp..

Cr or kr. See the force of the letter r, above.

Gl denotes smoothness or silent motion; as, English glib, glide.

Gn, jn, or kn denotes a sudden breaking off; as, Sanscrit janus, Greek yovú, Latin genu, German knie, English knee; Latin janua, a break in a wall.

Shw and sw denote gentle motion (compare the force of the letter w, above); as, German schwellen, schwimmen, schwingen; English sway, swagger, sweep, swerve, swell, swine, swing.

sly.

Sl denotes smoothness or silent motion; as, slide, slip, slime, sleight,

Sn denotes ideas relating to the nose (compare the force of the letter n, above); as, English snarl, sneer, sneeze, snicker, snivel, snore, snort, snout, snuff, snuffle.

Spr denotes a spreading out; as, English spread, sprain, sprawl, spring, sprinkle.

St denotes firmness or stability; as, English stable, staff, stake, stalk, stall, stand, stay, steady, stem, stick, stiff, stock, stout, stub, stubble, stubborn, stump, sturdy.

Str seems to denote exertion; as, English strain, strenuous, stress, strike (whence stroke, streak), strip (whence strap, stripe), strive (whence strife), string, strong (whence strength), strict, strait, straight, stretch, struggle.

Thr denotes violent motion; as, English throw, thrust, throng, throb. Tw is found in a large class of English words connected with the number two.

Wr evidently denotes distorted motion (compare the force of the letter r, above); as, English wrap, wreck (whence wrack), wrest (whence wrist, wrestle), wrig (whence wriggle), wring (whence wrong, wrangle, wrench), wrinkle, writhe (whence wreath, writhle, wry).

We forbear to add more, hoping that what we have said will be sufficient to support our position, that language is not entirely arbitrary or conventional, but, on the contrary, articulate sounds have a natural adaptedness to express specific ideas.

CHAPTER VIII.

ORTHOEPY.

§ 168. ORTHOEPY is a word derived from the Greek opoòs, right, and Toç, a word, and signifies the correct utterance of words. It bears the same relation to the ear which orthography does to the eye. It deals in audible signs of what is passing in the mind of the speaker, as the latter does in visible signs of what has been uttered by the voice. The two influence each other. A vicious orthography, says Quintilian, must bring on a vicious pronunciation. Quod male scribitur, male etiam dici necesse est. In turn, the visible form of language naturally accommodates to the pronunciation, whether right or wrong.

ORTHOEPY IN RESPECT TO THE PHONETIC ELEMENTS.

and how many, we Now a correct utter

§ 169. What the Phonetic Elements are, have already seen in previous chapters. ance of these elements separately and in combination is, in respect to them, Orthoepy. This is only an exhibition of the elements which a phonetic analysis of the language has developed, and is called Articulation.

1. One error on this point in pronouncing a word is the omission of an element which belongs to it, as when one says caad for card, pr-vail for pr-evail. In the first case, the twentieth, in the second, the fifth element, is omitted. See table, p. 145. 2. A second error is the introduction of an element not belonging to the word, as drownded for drowned, ceow for cow. In the first case, the twenty-eighth tabular element is introduced; in the second, the fifth.

3. A third error is the substitution of one element for another, as think-in for think-ing, srinks for shrinks. In the first case, the eighteenth element is substituted for the sixteenth; in the second, the thirty-first is substituted for the thirty-third.

4. A fourth error is the substitution of an obscure sound for

a distinct element; as when one says what approaches up-pinion for o-pinion, or what approaches par-tic-e-lar for par-ticu-lar. In the first case, an obscure sound is substituted for the eighth element; in the second, an obscure sound is substituted for the thirty-sixth.

ORTHOEPY IN RESPECT TO SYLLABICATION.

§ 170. What are the principles of syllabication we have seen in a previous chapter. Now an utterance of a syllable, or the syllables of a word in accordance with these principles, is, in respect to them, Orthoepy.

1. One error in respect to syllabication is the taking of an element from the syllable of a word where it belongs, and placing it in the syllable of another word; as to say "a nice house" instead of "an ice house," "that lasts till night" for "that last still night."

2. A second error is the taking of an element from the syllable of a word where it belongs, and placing it in another syllable of the same word; as when one says pre-face for pref-ace.

3. A third error is the suppressing of a syllable which belongs to a word; as to pronounce the adjective learned in one syllable instead of learn-ed.

4. A fourth error in syllabication is the adding of a syllable to a word which does not belong to it; as to pronounce parliament in four syllables, as parl-i-a-ment, instead of in three syllables, parl-e-ment.

ORTHOEPY

IN RESPECT TO ACCENT.

§ 171. What are the principles of English Accent we have seen in a previous chapter. A correct application of those principles to practice in the utterance of words and syllables, is, in respect to them, Orthoepy.

1. One error in accentuation is to accent a verb like a noun merely because they are spelled alike; as to pronounce to survey' like a survey, to attribute like an attribute. See § 147.

2. A second error is to overlook the derivation of words, and to accentuate from an ancient or a foreign language, as if it were derived from the Anglo-Saxon; as to place the accent on dissyllables like balloon', romance', on the first syllable, instead of on the last syllable, where it belongs.