called the New Passage, on the Gloucestershire side of the Severn, the Lias is divided into-an upper mass of strata resting on marlstone bed, and-a lower series of shales resting on limestone and shells. In the upper mass, many remains of insects and plants are found mingled with marine shells; but in the lower series, these are still more abundant. One band, about one foot thick, is called "the insect limestone," which contains in a well-preserved state the wings and the eyes of beetles, which must have been drifted to the sea by either wind or river. All this shows that dry land was not far off. 4. The bottom of the Liassic Ocean was covered with numerous plant-like Encrinites, especially those of the genus Pentacrinus, like that of No. 15, in fig. 7, of our last lesson. 5. During the liassic period, the sea abounded with animals, such as Terebratulæ and Spirifera, which had swarmed in the oceans of preceding periods, the Carboniferous, the Devonian, and even the Silurian. 6. The structure and size of the insects, such as beetles, dragon-flies, grasshoppers, etc., imply that the lands of the Lias period had a temperate climate; yet there are other organic remains associated with these that clearly indicate an ocean near the tropics. LESSONS IN GREEK.-No. XXXIX. Special peculiarities in the formation of some Verbs, both pure and impure,-strengthened stems. VERY many active Verbs form the Future with the middle form, as ακουω, I hear, fut. ακουσομαι, aor. ηκουσα; απαντάω, I meet with, fut. απαντησομαι, aor. απήντησα; απολαύω, 1. snjoy, fut. απολαυσομαι, aor. απελαυσα, etc. The following Verbs in aw and Ew, whose stem originally γενευκά. νεω, 1 sim, fut. νευσομαι οι νευσοῦμαι, aor. ενευσα, perf. πλεω, I sail, fut. πλευσομαι, commonly πλευσοῦμαι, aor. επλευσα, perf. TETAεUкα, perf. mid. or pass. TETAεvoμai, aor. pass. επλευσθην. πνεω, I breathe, blow, fut. πνευσομαι οι πνευσοῦμαι, aor. επνευσα, perf. πεπνευκα, perf. mid. or pass. πεπνευσμα, aor. pass. επνευσθην. Remark that ρεω, I flow, has fut. ῥνησομαι, aor. ερρύην, perf. Eppuηka. Also Xew, I pour out, deviates from the foregoing; fut. xew, aor. Exea, perf. KEXUкa, fut. mid. xeouat, aor. mid. excaunv; perf. mid. or pass. Kexuμaι, aor. pass. exvony, fut. pass. xvenooμai. The following Verbs, in addition to the Common Future in copat, have a form in σoupa; this circumflexed Future is called the Doric. THE DORIC FUTURE. pevy-w, I flee, fut. pevkovμai, also pevžoμai. rail-w, I play, fut. raižovμai, also raižop πιπ-τω, I fall, fut. πεσοῦμαι. See the verbs, κλαίω, πλέω, πνεω, νεω, and θεω, just spoken of. The following pure and impure verbs, which, by the assumption of an e as characteristic, pass into the analogy of pure verbs in their transformations, have independent forms for the subjunctive Perfect, and optative-Pluperfect, middle or passive. κτα-ομαι, I acquire; perf. κεκτημαι, I possess ; subj. κεκτῶμαι, ᾖ, ῆται; plupt. εκεκτημην, I possessed, opt. κεκτῳμην, φο, στο οι κεκτημην, κεκτης, κεκτητο. (MNA), I remember; the forms will be given shortly. kalew, I name, perf. KEKλnpai, I am called, I bear the name; plupf. εκεκλημην, opt. κεκλημην, ο, το, SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. Some verbs, in some of their forms, throw out the stemvowel, which stands between two consonants. This ejection is termed Syncope: thus eyepw, I awake, transitively (the Aorist 18 regular, as ηγειρα) perf. 1. εγηγερκα, I have awakened; perf. 2. By metathesis is meant the displacement of a vowel by a βαλλω, I throw, fut. βαλῶ, aor. εβαλον (ΒΑΛ), perf. βεβληκα; δαμάζω, I tame, fut. δαμασω, aor. εδαμασα (ΔΜΑ), perf. δεδμη- καλεω, I call, fut. καλῶ, aor. εκαλεσα, perf. κεκληκα; perf. τεμνω, I cut, aor. 2. ετεμον, fut. τεμῶ, perf. τετμηκα; mid. I VOCABULARY. Κατακαιω, I burn down. Περιρρέω, I flow round. Ηγεομαι, I lead, I believe. Λυδία, ας, ή, Lydia. Νεμεα, ας, ή, Nemea. Στρατία, ας, ή, an army, an expedition. Σφαῖρα, ας, ή (our sphere), a ball, a top. REMARKS. ανδρασι, the dative for the genitive with ύπο. ὁ καθ ̓ ἡμας βιος, our age. μη καμων, if you do not labour. How do you explain the formation of ετμήθη? What is the derivation, and what the person, mood, and tense of κέκτηνται ? οι εκπλευσεῖται? of απεκτειναν? of ηλπισαν? οἱ ανεπαυσαντο οι εγρηγορεσαν ? EXERCISES.-GREEK-ENGLISH. πολεμον συγκεχυμενοι εισιν. Οἱ πολέμιοι την πολιν κατέκαυσαν The army sailed away. The army sails away. The army will sail away. The north wind blows against the army (expedition). The north wind will blow against the expedition. The north wind blew against the expedition. The soldiers hope to swim through the river (inf. fut.). The soldiers thought they should (to) run to the doors (inf. fut.). You weep for the unfortunate. You will weep for the unfortunate, the foes will fee. The foes fled. Keeping company with children, thou wilt play. Good men play, and are yet in earnest. The foes will put the ranks of the soldiers into confusion. Ο boy, pour water on the earth. The city has been burnt down by the enemy. The citizens think the enemy will burn down the city. The enemy will lay waste the land. The land will be laid waste. If thou labourest, thou wilt be happy. VERBS IN WITH THE PRESENT STEM STRENGTHENED. We have already seen that the Present stem of several Verbs is strengthened, which strengthening, however, does not extend beyond the Present and Imperfect. Besides the strengthening by a consonant, and the lengthening of the stem-vowel, there are others which must now be set forth. Let it be premised that all the forms which are assumed in order to explain the formation of the parts, are printed in Capitals. The syllable μ, which stands in parenthesis, shows that the form arises according to the analogy of the verbs in μι, of whose conjugation we shall treat by-and-bye. Deponentia, or Deponent Verbs, are those which want the active form, appear only in the middle voice, and have a reflective or intransitive signification. 1. Verbs whose pure stem in the Fresent and Imperfect is strengthened by the insertion of v before the termination. Observe that βαινω, lengthens the stem-vowel a into αι, ελαύνω, a into av, and πινω, ἵ into 7. (α) βαίνω, I step, I go, (BA), fut. βησομαι, perf. βέβηκα, aor. εβην (μι); passive in compounds, as παραβαινομαι, perf. mid. or pass. παραβεβᾶμαι, aor. pass. παρεβαθην. (δ) ελαύνω, I drive, (a chariot), [(ΕΛΑ), fut. ελῶ, ᾶς, ᾶ, inf. ελᾷν, aor. ηλάσα, perf. εληλάκα ; mid. I drive from me, aor. ηλασαμην, perf. mid. or pass. εληλάμαι, inf. εληλασθαι, aor. pass. ηλάθην. (c) πινω, I drink, fut. πιομαι, aor. επιον imperat. πιθι, εκπιθι (μι), inf. πιειν part. πιων; (ΠΟ), perf. πεπωκα, perf. mid. or pass. πεπωμαι, aor. επόθην. (α) τίνω, I atone for, I pay for, fut. τισω, aor. ετίσα, perf. τετίκα, perf. mid. or pass. τετισμαι, inf. τετῖσθαι, aor. pass. ετίσθην, mid. τινομαι, I avenge, punish, τίσομαι, ετίσαμην. (ε) φθάνω, I go before, I anticipate, fut. φθήσομαι (more rarely φθάσω), aor. εφθάσα, and (rarely in prose) εφθην and εφθαμην (μι), perf. εφθακα. Here belongs a vero whose pure stem ends in a consonant: δακνω, I bite, aor. εδάκον, fut. δήξομαι, perf. act. δεδηχα; perf. mid. or pass. δεδηγμαι, aor. pass. εδηχθην. Η στρατια αυριον εκπλεύσεται (εκπλευσεῖται). Ανεμος Βορράς εναντίος τη στρατία επνευσεν. Εν τη ναυμαχία τη εν κολπῳ Κρισαιῳ οἱ Πελοποννησιοι ανδρας των Αθηναίων απεκτειναν, όσοι μη εξενευσαν αυτών. Οταν οἱ πολέμιοι τη We have seen that liquid verbs take the same strengthening. πολει πλησιασωσιν, οἱ στρατιώται αναρπάσαντες τα όπλα 2. Verbs whose pure stem in the Present and Imperfect, ts θεύσονται προς τας πύλας. Πολλοις και σοφοις ανδρασι | strengthened by the introduction of the syllable ve before the termi nation. κεκλαυσται τἀνθρωπινα, τιμωριαν ἡγουμενοις είναι τον βιον. Τίς ουκ αν κλαύσειε τον φίλον ατυχῆ ; Οἱ πολῖται ηλπισαν τους πολεμίους φευξεῖσθαι. Οἱ παῖδες σφαιραν παιξοῦνται. Σωκρατης πολλακις επαίσεν άμα σπουδαζων. Συγκεχυκε νυν την πίστιν ὁ καθ' ἡμας βιος. Οἱ πολέμιοι τας των Ελλήνων τάξεις συνεχεαν. Οἱ κεκμηκότες στρατιώται ανεπαυσαντο. Ουκ αν μη καμων ευδαι μονοίης. Αττική ύπο των Περσων ετμήθη. 'Ηρακλης το ροπαλον, ὁ εφορεί, αυτος ετεμεν εν Νεμες. Οὺς οἱ πολλοι πλουσιους λεγουσι, κεκτηνται κτήματα, ἁ και κακος τις κεκτῇτ' αν. Οἱ στρατιώται πασαν την νυκτα εγρηγορεσαν. Οἱ νόμοι δια τον (α) βυ-νε-ω, I stop up, I fill up, (with gen.), fut. βύσω, aor. εβῦσα, perf. mid. or pass. βεβυσμαι, inf. βεβυσθαι, aor. pass. εβυσθην. (6) αφικ-νε-ομαι, I arrive, fut. αφιξομαι, aor. 2. αφικομην, αφικού, αφίκεσθαι, perf. αφιγμαι, inf. αφιχθαι, plupr. αφιγμην, αφίξα, οις. (α) ὑπισχνε-ομαι, I promise, aor. ὑπεσχόμην, imper. ὑποσχου ; fut. ὑποσχήσομαι, perf. υπεσχήμαι; κα αμπισχνεομαι οι αμπεχομαι, I wear, I have on, fut. αμφεξομαι, aor, ημπισχόμην and ημπεσχόμην. VOCABULARY. ERẞaivo, I go out, turn out, | Evdaιpovew, I am happy. that is, prove or become. Συμβαινω, I go with, go toge- | ther; ovußaive, it happens. Aπελavνw, I drive away. Ežeλavvw, I drive out. EKTIV, I drink out, I drink Σπαρτη, ης, ή, Sparta. Λυκούργος, ον, δ, Lycurgus. REMARKS, ETC. Why is συνεβεβήκει, in the singular number? What is its tense, mood, and person? What is there peculiar in its root Baivo? Give the person, tense, mood, and root of exßnoy. Explain the form απελήλαται; also πεπωκεναι, know any word like its theme? Do you What part of the Verb is εκπιομαι? εplaσav puyoνres, anticipated flying, that is, outstripped them in fight, got before them in flight, in this sense peavw, as here, takes a participle after it. This is the sense in which St. Paul's words (1 Thess. iv. 15.) "shall not prevent them which are asleep," (prevent from the Lat. præ, before, and venio, I come, go,) shall not be (or go up to heaven) before, ov un 0аowμεν TOUS κοιμηθέντας. EXERCISES.-GREEK-ENGLISH. participle formed? What is the Present? How is the Present strengthened? Eiλnpora, having received, that he had received, the participle is required after αισθόμενος; whence is ειληφοτα ? Αιχμαλωτος, ου, ὁ a captive; explain the derivation of γεγοVOTOS, who had become; what participle? whence? explain the formation. Epot, literally to me; this is called the dativus ethicus, or the dative of feeling, as it means more than it expresses; here, "if you will listen to me, sell your shield and buy a ship :" whence arodog and pu? what are the parts? Karalnoais, you may pass your days, (kara and Law). What part of the verb is it ? Ομοιως, as you have done. Κατηγορέω (κατα and αγορεύω), with gen. of the person, accusing or having accused. To the Spartans who accused the Thebans of many serious misdeeds, Epaminondas said, "Yes," truly they made you give up your brevity of speech; βραχυλογοῦντας, the participle after επαυσαν. Epaminondas thus reproachfully alluded to the well-known conciseness (Laconism) observed by the Lacedæmonians in their speech, and at the same time intimated that the Thebans had taken from them the sovereignty (yeμovia) of Greece. Explain the formation of βραχυλογούντας. Whence comes επαυσαν What part part of the verb? What does the middle voice signify? Пoλλa kaι μɛyaλa, literally, many and great; we say many great things. LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. XXVII. Of the University of Pavia, and Professor of the Italian and German EXERCISES.-ENGLISH-ITALIAN. Τοις στρατιωταις εν τη στρατια πολλα κακα συνεβεβηκει. Σοφοις ὁμιλῶν και αυτος εκβηση σοφος. Λυκουργος πολυτελειαν εξήλασε της Σπαρτης. Περσων ουδεις απελήλαται νομῳ τιμων | Who has been here? The brothers of the young merchant PLEASANT words are suspicious in the mouth of a haughty man. και αρχών. Πολλοι συμπιοντες ἅπαξ γιγνονται φίλοι. Ο have been here to see whether you were at home. They asked μεθυων δουλος εστι του πεπωκεναι. Ουκ εκπιομαι τον οινον. where you were. I said that you are in the theatre. Where Ο οίνος ύπο των στρατιωτων εξεποθη. Τους κακούργους οἱ θεοι | have they been? They have been a long time in the country αποτίσαιντο. Οἱ πολιται τους πολεμίους έφθασαν εις την πολιν They never were discourteous, for this reason they were φυγοντες. Κυων δήξεται τον δάκοντα. Ο λαγως ύπο του κυνος thy uncler Last Monday, they had gone there before sunhonoured and esteemed by all. When were thy parents with εδήχθη. Ὁ τάλαρος νηματος βεβυσται. Οἱ πρέσβεις εις την set. I should have gone there with them if I had not been πολιν αφίκοντο. Ουτοι γ' εφιξη των ακρων ανευ πόνου. Ο φιλος ill. Live (ye) as though you were old, that you may not rem ύπεσχετο μοι αφίξεσθαι. Αἱ γυναικες ημπεσχοντο καλα ἱματια. pent of having been young. Be kind, but be not too credulous and incautious, or else thou wilt be deceived. They say that the courier has already returned from Paris, but I doubt it, unless the weather has been favourable. Everybody would be wise, if follies committed could always be remedied. It is easy indeed to say: "I am contented;" but it is difficult to be so. ENGLISH-GREEK.. The The woman wore beautiful garments. The woman will wear beautiful garments. The friends promised to come. baskets are full of yarn. The dogs will bite the biter. The general got into the city before his foes. The gods punish evil-doers. O gods, punish evil-doers. O that Apollo would punish that evil-doer. Many friends drank together. Friends drinking together become enemies. Many evils happened to my children as they came (coming) hither. The citizens are not excluded from honours. HISTORICAL ANECDOTES. Sweet, pleasant, dól-ce In the mouth, in bóc-ca VOCABULARY. Τονδε υπασπιστην αισθόμενος ειληφότα χρηματα πολλά παρ' ανδρος αιχμαλωτου γεγονότος, Εμοι μεν, είπεν Επαμεινονδας, Whether, se απόδος την ασπίδα, σεαυτῳ δε πρίω καπηλειον, εν ᾧ καταζησαις" | At home, in cd-sa ουκετι γαρ εθέλεις κινδυνεύειν ὁμοιως, εἰς των πλουσιων γεγονως | They asked, do-man-dd-ro-no Where, dó-ve και μακαριων. Theatre, ted-tro Προς τους Σπαρτιατας πολλά και μεγάλα των Θηβαίων I said, dis-st κατηγορήσαντας, Ούτοι μέντοι, είπεν, ύμας βραχυλογοῦντας A long time, un pez-zo επαυσαν. REMARKS, ETC. "YπaσжIOTηs, ov, & (aomic, a shield, vño, under) a shield-bearer; alofopɛvos, perceiving, having become aware; whence is this Country, cam-pá-gna Esteemed, sti-má-ro Gone, ar-ri-vá-to (with essere) Sunset, il tra-mon-tár del só-le Gone, an-dd-to (with essere) Ill, am-ma-la-to As though, cá-me se That you may not repent, af. Kind, u-má-no Hast thou my penknife? No, I have it not. Thy sister had it just now. Thou art right and he is wrong. What was the matter with your brother? He was in a bad humour. That is true, he had the toothache, and his sisters had the headache; they had danced too much. The Count had much money, and now he is poor. Why is he no longer rich? Because he was not economical. Thou wilt have fine weather to-morrow for thy journey. I do not think so, we shall probably have a thunder storm. I shall have a new travelling dress, the tailor will bring it me to-morrow. Be patient and thou wilt have all that thou wishest. Be (ye) regular in your affairs and you will have greater satisfaction. Many have indeed too much, still nobody believes he has enough. It appears to me that thou hast no perseverance in thy good intentions. Some will maintain that he has not the necessary knowledge. I doubt whether he has had what he says. To obtain this, it will be necessary that you have good friends. If he had good books, he would have the means to employ himself in an agreeable manner. If you had more courage and precaution, you would have a better lot. If thou hadst not had good recommendations, thou wouldst not have had the advantage of obtaining the desired place so soon. Penknife, tem-pe-ri-no No, no VOCABULARY. It, lo (before the verb) Just now, poc' án-zi (or pê-co! pri-ma) Right, ra-gió-ne (aver ragione, to be right) Wrong, tor-to (aver torto, to be wrong) What, che cô-su In, di Bad humour, cat-ti-vo u-mó-re Toothache, do-lór di dên-ti Too much, trôp-po Now, a-des-so (or ó-ra) Why because, per-chè Rich, ric-co Journey, viág-gio I do not think so, nol cré-do Travelling-dress, a-bi-to da There are moments when one must listen more to courage than to prudence. There are few heroes who maintain their character up to their old age. There is no felicity which is not liable to the attacks of envy. Five leagues from Marseilles there are high mountains which, for the greatest part, are covered with pines. There are statues which one would not give away for a hundred thousand dollars, and an infinite number of wretched men one would sell for very little. There is no means of convincing an obstinate blockhead. There will always be men who will oppose evident truths; how many of them are there not now-a-days! There was once a philosopher who maintained that there is no greater good than a sound mind in a sound body. Hugens maintains that there are inhabitants in the moon. Are there fine environs and beautiful prospects here? There are many who think that the Italian language can be learnt in three months comfortably ; and these same persons, after a study of six months, cannot even say: "I have written just now-It has struck ten o'clock just now-I should much like to know accurately, etc" Patient, pa-ziên-te All that thou wishest, tút-to Greater satisfaction, mag-giór sod-dis-fa-zió-ne Many, mól-ti non before the verb and alcuno in the place of no) Perseverance, co-stán-za Good intention, buon pro-po ni-mén-to Some (in the sense of several), al-cu-ni Will maintain, vô-glio-no so. ste-né-re Necessary knowledge, ne-cessá-ria co-gni-zió-ne I doubt, du-bi-to To obtain this, a ciò con-seguí-re It will be necessary, con-ver-rà Means, méz-zo go-no Their, il (la, i, le) ló-ro Character, ca-rát-te-re Up to, si-no a Old age, vec-chiá-ja Obstinate, o-sti-ná-to (or te. stár-do) Men, per-só-ne Will oppose, si op-pón-go-no (dat.) Truth, ve-ri-tà Evident, e-vi-dên-te How many, quan-ti Philosopher, sa-vio (or fi-lòso-fo) Maintained, so-ste-né-va Sound, sa-no,-a No, non (before vi or ci and Body, cór-po the verb) Felicity, fe-li-ci-tà Which is not liable, che non sog-giác-của Attack, mor-so Hugens, U-gê-nio Maintains, so-stie-ne Inhabitant, a-bi-tán-te Moon, lú-na Here, qui Fine environs, con-tór-no a-mêno (pl.) Prospect, ve-du-ta (or pún-to dɩ Comfortably, co-mo-da-mén-te Same person, me-dé-si-mo A study of six months, sé-i mé-si di stu-dio Cannot even, non sán-no nep pú-re Say, di-re Written, scrit-to Just now, poc' án-zı It has struck, só-no suo-ná-te Ten o clock, le die-ci Just now, in qué-sto pún-to I should much like to know accurately, cor-tê-i bên sa-pé-re di pre-cí-so. REGULAR VERBS. The termination of the infinitive mood of all Italian verbs is the syllable re. The vowel immediately preceding this syllable is the characteristic letter of each Italian verb, predominant in most of its tenses, and determining the conjugation to which it belongs. This vowel is in the first conjugation a, e. g. a-má-re, to love; in the second conjugation e, e. g. te-mé-re, to fear, or cré-de-re, to believe; and in the third conjugation i, e. g. sen-ti-re, to feel. The second conjugation comprehends two classes of verbs. The first of them is a comparatively small number, and has the accent on the last syllable but one, or the penultima, e. g. te-mé-re, to fear; sa-pé-re, to know; ve-dé-re, to see; vo-lé-re, to be willing, etc. The second of them has the accent on the last syllable but two, or the antepenult, while the penultima is short (ere brê-ve), e. g. cré-de-re, to believe; leg-ge-re, to read; pêr-de-re, to lose; vén-de-re, to sell, etc. Some grammarians have even adopted two conjugations ending in ere, and consequently four conjugations of Italian verbs. Such a division, however, appears uselessly to increase the number of conjugations, as the difference of the termination in ere only belongs to the accent of the infinitive mood, while all the other tenses of both classes of the verbs ending in ere are identical, and as even the irregularities of several verbs ending in ere are the same whether the e of their penultima is long or short. I have on this account adhered to the generally adopted classification of three conjugations of the Italian verbs. Before entering on the conjugations themselves I shall present to the learner a synoptical table, showing the formation of the principal terminations of all Italian verbs, and by a scientific method imprinting them with greater efficiency on the memory. The syllables within the brackets of a parenthesis are omitted in the formation of the respective tenses. SENT (ire) sentito, felt. THE PRESENT GERUND (GERUNDIO PRESENTE) In verbs ending in are the third person singular is formed by The Future Tense (Tempo futuro) is formed by putting in the place of the final vowel e of the TEMER-(e)o', AI, A'; EMO, ETE, ANNO. I shall feel, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE OR CONJUNCTIVE MOOD (MODO CONGIUNTIVO) The Present Tense (Tempo presente) is in the three persons singular of all verbs identical with the third person singular of the imperative mood. The first and second persons plural of this tense have in all verbs the invariable terminations iamo and iate. The third person plural is is formed by changing the termination are in ando, and the formed by adding the syllable no to the third person singular terminations ere and ire in endo, e. g. AM (are) amANDO, loving. of this tense. The preceding table gives the principal terminations of the is formed by omitting the final syllable re of the infinitive mood Italian verbs. To commit them to memory would appear a and putting in its place the following terminations:AMA-(re) I loved, etc. TEME-(re) VA, VI, VA; VA'MO, VAʼTE, VANO. I feared, etc. SENTI-(re) I felt, etc. The Indeterminate Preterite (Tempo passato remoto), with the exception of the third person singular, is formed by omitting the syllable re of the infinitive mood and adding the corresponding terminations below to the remainder of the verb. merely mechanical operation. By doing so the learner will, however, ensure a decided progress in reading and speaking, because he will at once have fixed in his mind what is essential and common to all conjugations, without the trouble of arriving at this important result after long labour and practice. I shall now present the conjugations themselves of the regular verbs, with some additional forms or terminations, the knowledge of which is indispensable, and with useful remarks in the shape of notes. |