guided fancies and likes or controlling his activities by a formal succession of dictated directions. As just intimated, it is the teacher's business to know what powers are striving for utterance at a given period in the child's development, and what sorts of activity will bring these to helpful expression, in order then to supply the requisite stimuli and needed materials. The suggestion, for instance, of a playhouse, the suggestion that comes from seeing objects that have already been made to furnish it, from seeing other children at work, is quite sufficient definitely to direct the activities of a normal child of five. Imitation and suggestion come in naturally and inevitably, but only as instruments to help him carry out his own wishes and ideas. They serve to make him realize, to bring to consciousness, what he already is striving for in a vague, confused, and therefore ineffective way. From the psychological standpoint it may safely be said that when a teacher has to rely upon a series of dictated directions, it is just because the child has no image of his own of what is to be done or why it is to be done. Instead, therefore, of gaining power of control by conforming to directions, he is really losing it-made dependent upon an external source."

Dewey, in Elementary School Record,* 1:150-151 (June, 1900).

527. PUPIL ATTITUDES

Horace Mann Fifth Grade pupils (1919-20) said of their project work:

"I like being able to use many books and look up work because it makes the recitation more interesting. Before, I was allowed to use only one book, and all the boys and girls had the same one."

"I like being able to help each other. We are more of a unit.” Marie Hennes, in Teachers College Record,* 22:148 (March, 1921).

528. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF PROJECTS

"The particular word, project (as here used), is of small consequence; the idea or point of view back of the word is the important element. We understand the term project to refer to any unit of purposeful experience, any instance of purposeful activity where the dominating purpose, as an inner urge, (1) fixes the aim of the action, (2) guides its process, and (3) furnishes its drive, its inner motivation.

"The project thus may refer to any kind or variety of life

experience which is in fact actuated by a dominating purpose. I myself distinguish four types which in their border cases merge, to be sure, into each other. Moreover an example of any type might conceivably appear as a subordinate purpose under any other of the four types or under another instance of its own type. Let us consider the four types in turn.

"The first type represents those experiences in which the dominating purpose is to do, to make, or to effect; to embody an idea or aspiration in material form. The material of which the thing is made, in which the idea is to be embodied, may vary from clay, wood, cloth, and the like, through marble or pigment, to the words and thoughts and aspirations of a letter, a speech, a poem, a symphony, or a prayer. The finished production may be as insignificant as a child's sand pile on the seashore or as great as Alexander's empire. It may be built in a moment and perish in the building, or it may take as long in the making and remain as enduring as Newton's Principia. The criterion for judging is the character of the purpose. Is there an idea to be embodied? Is there an animating purpose to realize the idea? Is there consequent effortful action dominated by this purpose? If 'yes' is the answer to all these questions, then the project is of the first type.

"The second type of project may be defined as one which involves purposeful enjoying or appropriation of an experience. A boy will see and enjoy fireworks, or a circus, or a parade of soldiers. He will watch and enjoy watching a bee-martin drive off a hawk, or a spider spin a web and catch a fly in it. His mother will with a similar true purpose see and enjoy a sunset, or the beauties of the Mona Lisa. At succeeding periods in her life a girl will hear and enjoy a story, read and enjoy a novel, hear and see and enjoy a play of Shakespeare. Experiences of this type are, in comparison with those of the first type, relatively passive. For this reason, I suppose, some have been troubled that this type of experience should be included in the discussion and be called a project. The criterion again is the presence of a purpose. If the experience were in fact an entirely passive one, then purpose would have no place. But in all such experiences there is much activity. So again we ask: Is there a purpose for engaging in, and appropriating, and enjoying the experience? Does the purpose guide the action of seeing or hearing, as the case may be? If there is this purpose, then the experience described is a project of the second type. We may digress to ask whether the presence or absence in the child of the

attitude of purpose in such experiences makes any difference to the teacher who would use them educatively? The inevitable affirmative answer is sufficient reason for including this type of purposeful experience in an educational treatment of the subject. Perhaps the school of the future will know better how to exploit the educational possibilities of this second type of project. "The third kind of project is one in which the dominating purpose is to solve a problem, to unravel and so compose some intellectual entanglement or difficulty. The problem has its natural setting and origin, at least in the race history, in the pursuit of some end. Thus it begins, both for the individual and for the race, as a subordinate part of a project of the first type. Probably for most people thinking is limited largely to such practical situations as arise in ordinary life: a difficulty arises; thinking is necessary to surmount it. If this were all, it would probably have been wise not to set off this purposive problemsolving as a separate type. But with intellectual growth there comes the possibility of relatively separated problems. To the intellectually-minded a problem has a grip of its own. The solution of problems has a technique of its own, varying, to be sure, with the field of enquiry. The essential part which ideas play in effective intelligence affords sufficient justification for encouraging our pupils to work much with problems. In no other way can ideas be better clarified or better organized. So far all are agreed. There are some, however, who profess difficulty in distinguishing a problem from a project. The criterion is as elsewhere, the presence or absence of a dominating purpose. I may be confronted now with an ax, now with a problem. I may recognize both, the one as an ax, the other as a problem; but so far there is no project. If further I decline to wield the one or solve the other, there is still no project. A project for me begins exactly when my purpose arises. You ask me: 'What is one-third of the number whose third is three?' I may say, and many will say, 'I could work it if I tried, but I don't like mathematics.' If I do answer in this way, I recognize it as a problem, but I decline to purpose its solution. There exists then no project for me. A project of the third type implies first a felt difficulty, a problem; and second, a purpose to solve the problem. The use of problems being granted, the part that purpose plays in solving them, especially the more complex ones, is so clear and definite that none will question the proper inclusion of this as a third type of project.

"The fourth type includes experiences in which the purpose is

to acquire some item or degree of knowledge or skill, or more generally, experiences in which a person purposes his own education at a specific point. The difference between this and other kinds of drill is again exactly one of attitude. Here the child purposes to learn the thing at hand, an attitude which makes a great difference in the efficiency of learning? A particularly valuable purpose in the realm of school work is one in which the person purposes to organize a point of view already more or less in hand, and to fix it in his memory for effective use later. Whether the making of the organization puts this under Type I, or whether the effort to fix it in memory keeps it here under Type IV is a matter of no moment. It is very important, however, that the teacher who would use the project method shall see the utility of the procedure and seek its use by his pupils. The dominating purpose to learn is the essence of projects of Type IV.

"We may further distinguish group projects from individual projects. In the latter one person alone is considered as feeling the dominating purpose. In the former several unite in a common purpose and pursue coöperatively, by a more or less clearly marked division of labor, the end held jointly in view. The social value of such coöperative pursuit of joint purposes needs no discussion here.

"It may not be out of place by way of negative definition to say emphatically that a project is not a topic-large or small. What gave rise to the idea that a large topic constitutes a project is beyond my power to explain. We hold no copyright for the term; but what sense or purpose there can be in introducing this kind of confusion is more than I can see. Projects may arise in connection with topics; but most emphatically a topic as such is not a project."

Kilpatrick, in Teachers College Record,* 22:283-7 (Sept., 1921).

CHAPTER XXI

THINKING

529. THE PROCESS OF DELIBERATION

"Deliberation is a dramatic rehearsal (in imagination) of various competing possible lines of action. It starts from the blocking of efficient overt action. . . . Then each habit, each impulse, involved in the temporary suspense of overt action takes its turn in being tried out. Deliberation is an experiment in finding out what the various lines of possible action are really like. It is an experiment in making various combinations of selected elements of habits and impulses, to see what the resultant action would be like if it were entered upon. But the trial is in imagination, not in overt fact. The experiment is carried on by tentative rehearsals in thought which do not affect physical facts outside the body. Thought runs ahead and foresees outcomes, and thereby avoids having to await the instructions of actual failure and disaster. An act overtly tried out is irrevocable, its consequences cannot be blotted out. An act tried out in imagination is not final or fatal. It is retrievable.

"Each conflicting habit and impulse takes its turn in projecting itself upon the screen of imagination. It unrolls a picture of its future history, of the career it would have if it were given head. . .

"We can judge its nature, assign its meaning, only by following it into the situations whither it leads, noting the objects against which it runs and seeing how they rebuff or unexpectedly encourage it. In imagination as in fact we know a road only by what we see as we travel on it. Moreover the objects which prick out the course of a proposed act until we can see its design also serve to direct eventual overt activity. Every object hit upon as the habit traverses its imaginary path has a direct effect upon existing activities. It reinforces, inhibits, redirects habits already working or stirs up others which had not previously actively entered in. In thought as well as in overt action, the objects experienced in following out a course of action attract, repel, satisfy,