the names of some of the most distinguished of these tribes, exist at the present day, as the French from the Franks; and the English from the Anglo-Saxons.

In the year 800, the celebrated Charlemagne, King of France, reestablished the Empire of the West; and thus the whole of Germany became subject to his sway. The Franco-Germanic empire, founded by Charlemagne, continued till the death of Louis III., the last prince of his line. This occurred in 912; and upon this occasion the Five Nations of Germany, as they were then called, the Franks, the Swabians, the Bavarians, the Saxons, and the Lorrainers, determined to choose an emperor for themselves. They accordingly, in a public assembly convened for the purpose, elected Conrad, Count of Franconia, son-in-law of the deceased monarch. Conrad was, therefore, properly speaking, the first Emperor of Germany; and from this period the empire became elective, which often led to bitter contentions, and most destructive wars.

At first, the emperors were chosen by the princes, the lords, and the deputies of cities; but the right of election was afterwards restricted to an Electoral College, which consisted of nine members, namely, the Archbishops of Mentz, Trèves, and Cologne, and the Electors of Bohemia, Saxony, Brandenburg, the Palatinate, Bavaria, and Hanover. These electors were sovereign princes, and they were subject to the emperor only as the head of the great federal body, of which he was sometimes the least powerful member.

In 1273, Rodolph of Hapsburg, a Swiss nobleman, was elected emperor. He acquired for his family the provinces of Austria, Styria, and Carniola; and thus became the founder of the house of Austria. In 1437, Albert, duke of Austria, was elected emperor, and since his time (till the abolition of the title in 1806), the emperors of Germany were chosen from his family. Albert married the daughter of Sigismund, the preceding emperor, and thus added to his patrimonial possessions the kingdoms of Hungary, and Bohemia, and other provinces in the north and east of Germany. This accounts for the influence that the house of Austria possessed, until lately, in Germany. In 1806, Francis II. was obliged by Napoleon to resign the crown and title of Emperor of Germany, and to assume the title of Emperor of Austria. This put an end to the German Empire, and in its stead the minor princes, some of whom were made kings, were formed into an association, called the Confederation of the Rhine, at the head of which Napoleon placed himself under the title of Protector; and in less than a year after, he obliged them to become his allies against the Prussians. After the downfall of Napoleon in 1814, the Germanic Confederation was established as it existed until 1866; in that year the headship of Germany passed into the hands of Prussia, and a new confederation was formed, called the "North German Confederation," with Berlin for its capital. Austria was excluded, and since then has had no political connexion with Germany. Bavaria and the other states of South Germany did not join the new confederation; but in 1871, at the conclusion of the war with France, the states of North and South Germany were united as the "German Empire," King William I. of Prussia being elected Emperor of Germany.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

THE kingdoms of Sweden and Norway form one European power under the same crown. The great peninsula, called Scandinavia, of which they consist, is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean; on the west by the Atlantic and German Oceans; on the south by the Skager Rack, the Cattegat, the Sound, and the Baltic; and on the east by the Baltic, the Gulf of Bothnia, and Russia. Sweden occupies the eastern part of it, and Norway the western; and the general boundaries between them are successive chains of mountains which extend under various names through the whole length of the peninsula. See page 137.

SWEDEN.

The length of Sweden from north to south is about 1,000 miles; and its breadth from east to west is about 200 miles.

Its AREA in square miles is upwards of 170,000; and its POPULATION in 1881 was 4 millions.

Sweden is divided into three great divisions, formerly called kingdoms, which are subdivided into 24 läns or governments.

CHIEF TOWNS.-Stockholma (177,000), the capital, is built on several small islands and peninsulas, at the junction of Lake Mælar with the Baltic. It has a safe and capacious harbour, and extensive trade. Its arsenal is famous. Gottenburg (78,000), on the Cattegat, ranks next to Stockholm for commerce and population. Upsala (16,000) is celebrated for its university.b Carlscrona (18,000) has considerable trade, and is the principal station of the Swedish navy. Malmö (39,000), on the Sound, is strongly fortified. Orebro (12,000), near Lake Hielmar, is one of the most commercial places in the interior of Sweden. Lund (14,000), a few miles north-east of Malmö, is an ancient town and the seat of an university. Jonköping (17,000), near Lake Wetter, has con

a Stockholm.-The name given to this city evidently refers to its position, and the mode in which it must have been built. Holm signifies an island, formed by a river, and stock is another form of the word stake. In such sites, the foundations of buildings are supported by stakes or timbers driven into the earth. See the observations on Amsterdam, page 311.

b It is from the observatory of Upsala that the Swedish geographers reckon longitude.

siderable commerce. It has an arsenal and manufacture of arms. Helsingborg (12,000), opposite to Elsinore, is the nearest point to Denmark. Fahlun (5,000) is noted for its copper mines. Norrköping (27,000) and Gefle (19,000) are places of considerable trade. Calmar (11,000) is famous as the place in which the treaty for the union of the three kingdoms was concluded in the year 1397. (See page 310.)

ISLANDS.-In the Baltic, Gothland and Oland.

RIVERS.-The Dahl, the Lulea, and the Tornea, flow into the Gulf of Bothnia; the Motala, into the Baltic; and the Gōto or Gotha into the Cattegat.

LAKES.-The principal lakes are Wener, Wetter, Mælar, and Hielmar.

ARMY AND NAVY.-The Swedish army consists of 41,000 troops of the line, 135,000 reserve forces, 8,000 militia, and 11,000 volunteers. The naval force consists of 1 ship of the line, 1 screw frigate 4 corvettes, 4 iron-clad monitors, 10 gun boats, and a large number of small vessels, carrying in all 450 guns and 8,000 men.

The soil of Sweden is in general very unproductive; and scarcely one-twentieth part of the country is capable of cultivation. The chief wealth is derived from its minesb and forests. Its fisheries are also extensive and valuable.

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

Sweden was originally occupied by the Fins, and afterwards by the Goths, &c. Hence the names Finmark, Finland, Gothland, Gottenburg,d &c. In 1397, it was, with Norway, united to Denmark under the celebrated Danish Queen Margaret. It remained subject to Denmark till 1523, when it recovered its independence under the famous Gustavus Vasa. Among the succeeding monarchs, Gustavus Adolphus, and Charles XII., were the most celebrated. In 1810, Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's generals, was elected king; and in 1814, Norway was wrested from Denmark by the Allied Sovereigns, and added to Sweden. See the Historical Sketch on Denmark.

a Wisbey, in the island of Gothland, was a large and populous city in the tenth and eleventh centuries, and a famous centre of trade with all the countries round the Baltic Sea; but it is now quite decayed.

b The annual produce of the mines of Sweden is about 100,000 tons of iron, 1,200 tons of copper, and 1,000 lbs. of silver The best iron is procured from the mines of Dannemora, 30 miles north from Upsala; and the most celebrated copper mines are at Fahlun, in Dalecarlia

e Finmark. That is, the boundary (march) or country of the Fins. Compare Denmark (of the Danes.)

d Gottenburg, or rather Gothenburg. That is, the stronghold or town (burg) of the Goths. The present king of Sweden, at his acces sion to the throne, was proclaimed "King of Sweden and Norway and of the Goths and Vandals."

NORWAY.

Its length from the Naze to Nordkün is upwards of 1,000 miles; and its breadth, from east to west, varies from 50 to 250 miles. Its AREA in square miles is 120,729; and its POPULATION 1,807,000.

Norway may be divided into Norway Proper or Southern Norway, and Norrland or Northern Norway. Norway Proper contains the four provinces of Aggerhuus or Christiania, Christiansand, Bergen, and Drontheim. Norrland comprises that part of Norway north of Drontheim, with Finmark or Norwegian Lapland.

CHIEP TOWNS.-Christiania (77,000), the capital or seat of govern-ment, is the best built town in the kingdom, and has extensive commerce. Bergen (34,000) is the second city in the kingdom in point of population, and the first in commerce. It is a naval station. Drontheim or Trondheim (22,000), the ancient capital, and residence of the Norwegian kings, is a place of considerable commerce. Frederickshald (7,400) is noted for its strong fortress, at the siege of which Charles XII. of Sweden was killed (1718). Drammen (19,000) has a large export trade in timber. Christiansand (12,000) is a thriving seaport. Stavanger (20,000) has a spacious harbour. It is one of the most ancient towns in Norway, and possesses a fine cathedral. The other towns of Norway are very small; as Frederickstadt (3,000), Kongsberg · (1,000), Röraas (4,000), Arendal (4,500), and Hammerfest. The latter is the most northerly town in Europe. It is on Qualöe (or Whale Island),. 60 miles S. W. of the North Cape. The population is about 1,000. The houses are made of wood, painted externally. It has a considerable trade in stockfish, whale, and seal oil, &c.

ISLANDS.-Mageröe, Qualöe, and the Lofoden Isles on the north-west; Hitteren and Vigten Isles on the west, &c.

BAYS.-West Fiord and Drontheim Bay on the west; and Christiania Bay on the south.

MOUNTAINS. The Dovre-field and Kiölen are the principal ranges.. See page 137.

RIVERS.-The Glommen, Drammen, and Louven, into the Skager Rack; and the Tana and Alten, into the Northern or Arctic Ocean. LAKES. The lakes are numerous. Miosen is the largest.

ARMY AND NAVY.-The army of Norway is about 13,000 troops of the line and 30,000 reserve forces. The naval force consists of 21 men-of-war, with an armament of 172 guns and 2,050 men.

Norway is a rugged and mountainous country, possessing, however, numerous valleys, and large tracts of great fertility, particu

larly in the south. A rugged chain of mountains separates it from Sweden; and the coasts are indented with fiords or inlets of the sea, and covered with rocky islands. The scenery is more diversified than Sweden with mountains, forests, valleys, lakes, rivers, precipices, and cataracts. The climate resembles that of Sweden; but it is neither so cold in winter, nor so warm in summer.

The chief wealth of Norway is derived from its mines,b forests, and fisheries. Its rocky coasts and islands are inhabited by numerous birds, which supply the eider-down of commerce.

Among the Loffoden Isles is the celebrated and dangerous whirlpool called the Malstrom. See page 160.

The Norwegians are a simple, but a brave, frank, and hospitable people. Education is in a backward state, but efforts are making to promote it. Most of the peasantry manufacture their own clothing, `tools, and furniture.

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

Norway was originally peopled by the Fins and Laps, who in after times were driven to the northern extremities by the Goths. In 875, Harfager or the Fair-haired, united the petty states of Norway into one monarchy and from that period (except during the time it was subject to Canute the Great, in 1028), it was governed by its own kings till the year 1397, when it was annexed to Denmark by the famous Union of Calmar. In 1814 it was annexed to Sweden by the Congress of Vienna; but it is still a distinct kingdom, and governed by its own laws. See the Historical Sketch on Denmark.

LAPLAND.

LAPLAND occupies the northern extremity of Europe. Though partitioned among Norway, Sweden, and Russia, it is considered as one country, on account of the peculiar character and habits of the people. The population of the whole of Lapland amounts to about 20,000; but the Laplanders themselves do not amount to more than 7,000. The other occupants are Russians, Swedes, and Norwegians

The chief towns are Tornea in Swedish, and Kola in Russian Lapland. But the Laplanders generally live in huts, or lead a wandering and barbarous life. They profess Christianity, but they are very ignorant of the Scriptures, and retain many Pagan superstitions. They are dwarfish in stature, seldom exceeding four feet and a half in height.

The chief wealth of the Laplanders is the rein-deer. In the winter they carry on some traffic with the Swedes at Tornea, and other places on the Gulf of Bothnia. They exchange at this season, skins, furs, dried fish, venison, and gloves, for flannel, cloth, hemp, copper, iron and various utensils, but particularly for spirituous liquors, meal, salt, and tobacco.

a Scarce one-hundredth part of the country is under, or is, perhaps, capable of cultivation.

The iron-mines of Arendal, the copper-mines of Röraas, and the silver-mines of Kongsberg, are the most productive.