Baltic to the Mediterranean Sea. The final blow to its prosperity was given by the foundation of St. Petersburg, which diverted the trade of the Baltic into another channel. Population, 15,000. Helsingfors, the present capital of Finland, is an important naval station. It is strongly defended by the batteries of Sweaborg, built on seven small islands which enclose it. It is the seat of a university (removed from Abo), and is also noted for its commerce. Population, 16,000. Abo, at the junction of the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia, was, till 1819, the capital of Finland. It has still a considerable trade. Population, 12,000. Archangel, on the North Dwina, where it falls into the White Sea, is the oldest port in Russia. It has a large export trade in linseed, rye, wheat, tar, &c. Its population is 20,000.

Moscow,b in the centre of Russia, on the river Moskva, the ancient capital, is the great emporium of the inland trade of the empire. Population, 612,000. Odessa, on the Black Sea, is the chief port of Southern Russia. It is particularly noted for its large exports of grain. It was made a free port in 1817; and it is strongly fortified. Population, 193,000. Kherson, on the Dnieper, has declined in consequence of the preference given to Odessa. It was here that the philanthropic Howard died (in 1790). Population, 128,000. Nikolaiev, on the Bug, before its junction with the Dnieper, has since the destruction of Sevastopol (in 1855), become the chief naval station of Russia on the Black Sea. Population, 83,000. Taganrog, on the northern shore of the Sea of Azov, is noted for its extensive exports of grain. Population, 48,000.

Astrakhan, on an island in the Volga, about 45 miles from its mouth, is the emporium of the trade of the Caspian Sea, and the centre of the maritime commerce of Russia with Persia, and other Eastern countries. Population, 57,000. Kasan, 430 miles E. of Moscow, and 4 miles from the Volga, has a large trade with Siberia and Tartary. It was formerly the capital of a Turkish khanate to which Russia was tributary. Population, 94,000. Nijni (or Nishni) Novgorod, at the junction of the Oka with the Volga, is noted for its great fair, which lasts from July to September, and is attended by upwards of 100,000 persons from all parts of Europe and Asia. Population, 42,000. Kiev, on the right bank of the Dnieper, about 500 miles S. W. of Moscow, is one of the

a Archangel is the most northern port in Europe of any consequence, and was the principal one in Russia till St. Petersburg was founded. It carries on a considerable trade during the summer, but its harbour is frozen during the greater part of the year.

b Moscow. This magnificent city was set fire to by its inhabitants when occupied by the invading army of the French, under Napoleon, in 1812, and two-thirds of it was destroyed. The Kremlin, which contains the ancient palace of the Czars, escaped the conflagration. The city has since been, in a great measure, rebuilt, and with increased splendour.

It

• Novgorod means new town and Nijni or Nishni means lower. was so called to distinguish it from Novgorod, on Lake Ilmen, which was formerly a large and flourishing city, and was in consequence called Novgorod Veliki or the Great.

T

oldest and most venerated cities of the empire. It was here Christianity was introduced among the Russians. Population, 127,000. Tula, about 100 miles S. of Moscow, has been called "the Birmingham of Russia." It is particularly noted for its extensive manufacture of muskets, swords, and bayonets. Population, 58,000. Stavropol, the capital of the government of the same name and of all Cis-Caucasia, is a strongly fortified town. Population, 34,000.

MOUNTAINS.-The Caucasus, the loftiest range in Europe, the Ural or Uralian Mountains, the Olonetz Mountains, and the Valdai Hills.

RIVERS. The principal rivers are the Volga and Ural, flowing into the Caspian Sea; the Don, into the Sea of Azov; the Kuban, Dnieper and Bug, and the Dniester, flowing into the Black Sea; the Vistula, the Niemen, the South Dwina, and the Neva, into the Baltic Sea; the Onega and North Dwina, into the White Sea; and the Mezen and Petchora, into the Arctic Ocean.

LAKES.-Ladoga, Onega, Peipus, Ilmen, Bieloe, &c.

ISLANDS.-In the Baltic, Aland, Dago, Oesel; in the Arctic Ocean, Nova Zembla, Spitzbergen, Vaigatch, &c.

GULFS, BAYS, STRAITS, &c.-The Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga; Archangel Bay, Onega Bay; Strait of Kertch or Yenikale, and the Strait of Vaigatch.

CAPES.-Kanin, Hango Head, Apsheron.

Russia, from its vast extent, is subject to great diversity of SOIL and CLIMATE; but generally speaking, except in its southern provinces, which are exceedingly fertile, it is a cold and unproductive country. The SURFACE is generally level, and a great portion of it, particularly towards the north, is covered with lakes, marshes, forests, and barren plains, called steppes.

The PEOPLE are rude and uneducated, but great efforts are now making to instruct and civilize them.

The principal PRODUCTIONS of Russia are timber, tar, pitch, tallow, hides, corn, hemp, flax, iron, copper, furs, potash. It also produces gold, platina, and precious stones.

Russia is principally a corn-growing country, and the great majority of its inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits, particularly in the central and southern provinces. And vast numbers of sheep and oxen are reared on the steppes.

Its MANUFACTURES are still in a backward state, but great efforts are making to improve those which they have, and to introduce others. Their principal manufactures are Russian leather, coarse linen and hempen fabrics, as canvas and sailcloth, cordage, &c. Cotton, woollen, and silk manufactures are also carried on in some of the principal towns, but to no great extent.

REVENUE, &c.-The revenue is about 68 millions sterling; and the DEBT is upwards of 375 millions sterling.

ARMY.-The standing army of Russia is the largest in Europe. It numbers upwards of 765,000 men.

NAVY.-As a naval power Russia is the third in Europe.

The ESTABLISHED religion is the Greek Church, but all others have full toleration. The GOVERNMENT is an absolute monarchy. Peter the Great was the founder of this vast empire.

HISTORICAL SKETCH.

Russia, anciently Sarmatia, is supposed to derive its name from the Rossi, a Slavonic tribe of whom mention is made in the histories of the ninth century. It was successively occupied by the Scythians, Goths, Vandals, Huns, and the other barbarians, who advanced upon, and ultimately overran the Roman empire. In 862, Ruric, a Scandinavian, having united together the independent states or tribes who possessed the country, became the first monarch of Russia. In 976 Vladamir embraced the religion of the Greek Church,b and introduced it among his subjects, who had previously been Pagans. About the year 1237, Batou, Khan of the Mongols, grandson of the great Zingis Khan, took possession of the empire, and for the space of more than two centuries and a half it remained in a state of subjection to him and his successors. But the independence of the empire was reestablished by Ivan Basilovitch, who subdued Astrakhan and other Tartar provinces. In 1696, Peter the Great, by the death of his brother Ivan, became sole monarch of Russia. He assumed the title of Emperor of all the Russias; and it is to this great prince that the present power of Russia is principally due. Before his time the Russians were little better than barbarians, but he made extraordinary efforts to introduce civilization among them, and to increase and consolidate the power of the empire. Attended by some young nobles, Peter, in disguise, set out on a tour through Europe in order to acquire a knowledge of the arts and sciences. Before his return he engaged numbers of the most skilful artisans to accompany him to Russia for the instruction of his semi-barbarous subjects. In 1709 Peter defeated the enthusiastic Charles XII. of Sweden, with great loss, at Pultowa, and died, regretted by his subjects, in 1725.

The reign of Catherine II., who came to the throne in 1762, was a period of great splendour. She was victorious by land and sea against the Turks, whom she meditated expelling from Europe. She died in 1796, leaving the throne to her son, the feeble and vacillating Paul I. Paul first interfered in the affairs of Europe as the enemy of France, and his armies, under Suwarrow, the conqueror of Poland, for a while gained great advantages in the north of Italy. But on the defeat of Suwarrow by Moreau and Massena Paul became an enthusiastic admirer of Napoleon. He laid an em

a In the Polish provinces most of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics; in Finland, and the provinces once Swedish, they are Lutherans ; in South and East Russia many are Mahometans.

b Through the instrumentality of the Greeks of Constantinople.

"All the Russias " refers to the countries called Russia Proper, Red Russia, White Russia, and Black Russia.

bargo on English commerce, and formed with Denmark and Sweden the Armed Confederacy of the North. In 1801 an assassin put an end to his fanatical career, and his son Alexander joined the coalition against the ambition of Napoleon. Alexander died in 1825, and was succeeded by Nicholas, who reigned until 1855. In 1853 Russia engaged in a war with Turkey, and in 1854, in order to preserve the balance of power in Europe, England and France became the allies of the Porte. The allied armies landed in the Crimea, and laid siege to the strong fortress of Sevastopol, which fell, after a memorable defence, in 1855. In the peace which was concluded in 1856, it was stipulated, amongst other conditions, that Russia and Turkey were to keep only a limited number of vessels of war in the Black Sea. But these stipulations were so modified in 1870 as to become a dead letter. The present Emperor, Alexander III., has shown himself favourable to liberty and commercial progress. The serfs, the last representatives of feudal villanage, have been recently liberated; and many important lines of railway have been opened.

AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE.

BOUNDARIES.-Austria-Hungary is bounded on the north by Saxony, Prussia, and Russian Poland; on the west by Bavaria, Switzerland, and Italy; on the south by Turkey, the Adriatic, and Italy; and on the east by Russia and Turkey (Moldavia).

It extends from 45° to 51° N. L., and from 9° 35′ to 26° 35' E. L. Its greatest length from east to west is 800 miles; and its breadth from north to south,a 400 miles. Its AREA is upwards of 240,000 square miles, and its POPULATION is nearly 38 millions. It comprises under it the following nations, which differ in language, customs, and manners:b—— The Archduchy of Austria, the kingdoms of Bohemia, Hungary

a Omitting Dalmatia, which extends along the Adriatic coast to nearly the forty-second parallel.

b RACE AND LANGUAGE.-Of the entire population of Austria-Hungary nearly one-half are Slavonians; more than a fifth are Germans; nearly a fifth are Magyars; and the remainder comprises Italians, Wal*lachians, Armenians, Albanians, Jews, and Zingari or Gypsies. The German race and language prevail in the Archduchy of Austria, and in the greater part of Styria and the Tyrol; the Slavonic, in Illyria, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Galicia, Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia. The Wallachians are numerous in the Bukowina, Hungary, and Transylvania. "They call themselves Rumani, and are the descendants of a medley of ancient settlers who colonized Dacia from different parts of the Roman empire. They speak a corrupt Latin dialect. The Magyars are a handsome and high-spirited race, of pure Asiatic extraction, akin to the Tartar and the Turk. They are generally the landed proprietors, and the predominant race in most of the Hungarian provinces. Their language is akin to the Finnish. Latin is also spoken by the educated classes. The Jews, who amount to upwards of 700,000, are found principally in the Polish provinces, and the Zingari or Bohemians, amounting to about 100,000, exist as a wandering people in the Hungarian and Polish provinces.

(with Slavonia and Croatia), Galicia (with Cracow and the Bukowina), Illyria, and Dalmatia, the Grand Principality of Transylvania, the Duchy of Styria, and the provinces of Tyrol, Moravia, and Silesia.

The Archduchy of Austria is the nucleus of the empire, and the seat of the government. It is divided into Upper and Lower Austria by the river Enns.

Since 1867 the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, as it is now called, forms two great divisions, or double state, consisting of the German Monarchy and the Hungarian Kingdom. The former is called Cis-leithan Austria and the latter Trans-leithan Austria. Each has its own parliament, laws, and government, but are united by a common parliament, called the DELEGATIONS, and the sovereign, who is styled "Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary."

The empire is divided into 18 provinces, 14 of which (including the Polish provinces) belong to the German Monarchy and 4 to Hungary.

Chief Towns.

Prague, Reichenberg, Königgratz.
Troppau, Teschen.

Brunn, Iglau, Olmütz.

VIENNA, Neustadt.

Linz, Steyer.

Gratz, Marburg.

Salsburg, Hallein.

Innsbrück, Trent, Botzen.

(Klagenfurt.

Laybach.

Görz, Trieste, Pola, Capo d'Istria.

Zara, Spalatro, Ragusa.

(Lemberg, Cracow, Brody, Wieliczka, Bochnia.

Czernowitz.

HUNGARIAN KINGDOM.

Pesth, Buda or Ofen, Presburg, Tokay,
Kremnitz, Schemnitz.

Klausenburg, Hermanstadt, Kronstadt.
Agram, Eszek, Fiume.

Peterwardein, Semlin.

a The Military Frontier is a narrow tract of country extending along the Turkish frontier from the Adriatic Sea to the eastern borders of Transylvania. It derives its name from the frequent wars carried on by the Austrians and Hungarians against the Turks.