colonies in 1833. 16. The corn laws abolished; and the principle of free trade established in 1846. 17. The war for the protection of Turkey declared against Russia by England and France in 1854. 18. The Indian mutiny, which broke out in 1857. 19. The abolition of the East India Company in 1858. 20. The war with Theodore, king of Abyssinia, for the release of British subjects in 1868. SCOTLAND. Scotland, like England, was originally peopled by the ancient Celts. As in England, too, the primitive inhabitants were in process of time driven to the western or mountainous part of the country by Saxon and other Gothic tribes, who possessed themselves of the Lowlands or south-eastern part of the island. Hence the difference which still exists between the inhabitants of the Highlands and those of the Lowlands of Scotland. Hence, too, the Highland Scotch are called Gaels, just as those parts of England to which the ancient British retired were called Wales and Cornwall. The ancient name of Scotland was Caledonia. By the Romans who invaded it under Agricola in the year 79, it was called Britannia Barbara; in the eighth century it was called the country of the Picts; and in the eleventh century it received its present name-ScoTLAND, which had been previously applied to Ireland. The Picts and Scots were united into one nation about the year 843, by Kenneth Mac Alpin. His successors were chiefly employed in wars against the English and Danes. Duncan expelled the Danes from his dominions; but, in 1038, he was murdered by Macbeth, who was himself slain two years after by Macduff. The most important events in the history of Scotland a The terms Gael, Gaul, Wales, and wall, as in Cornwall, are evidently different forms of the ancient Celtic word, gal, the meaning of which seems to be west or westward. Thus, Gaul (the ancient name of France) is in the west of Europe; Wales (Galles in French) is in the west of England; and Gael in the west of Scotland. Hence, also, Galway (and Galloway), the western direction (as Norway is the northern); Donegal, &c. b The similarity which still exists between the Welsh and Gaelic languages proves that they were originally the same; and it is well known that the Gaelic differs very little from the Irish, from which circumstance it is frequently called Erse, that is, Irish. • The Picts and Scots were of Scandinavian origin. are the wars with the first three Edwards of England, in which BRUCE and WALLACE were so distinguished for their patriotism and heroic deeds. The life and times of the beautiful but unfortunate Queen of Scots, Mary Stuart, is an interesting period in Scottish history; and the accession of her son James to the throne of England was an event of the greatest importance to both nations. This occurred in 1603; and since that period the two kingdoms have been under one sovereign. In 1707 the Legislative Union between Great Britain and Scotland was effected; and the two countries have since been called GREAT BRITAIN. IRELAND. Ireland, like the sister kingdoms, England and Scotland, was originally peopled by the ancient CELTS; and like them, too, its coasts, though in a less degree, were at subsequent periods taken possession of by GOTHIC tribes. Its ancient name was Ierne, which means, according to some authorities, the sacred isle; according to others, the western. It was called Juverna Hibernia, and Britannia Minor, by the Romans; and subsequently, Scotia or Scotland. In the eleventh century this term was transferred to Scotland, and Ireland resumed its ancient name. Ireland was probably visited by the PHOENICIANS in their voyages to England for tin; but little is historically known of it for several centuries after the Christian era. In the fifth century, Christianity was introduced into Ireland by St. Patrick, and it soon after became distinguished as the seat of learning, and so continued for several centuries. The country suffered much from the invasion of the Danes, and in 845 they were in possession of almost the whole kingdom. They were, however, soon after defeated and expelled. In the reign of Henry II. in 1172, Ireland was annexed to the English crown. In the reign of James I. several colonies from England and Scotland were introduced into Ireland; and great im provements were made in the laws and in the administration of justice. a Ierne.-Hence its modern names ERIN and (Ierneland) IRELAND. From Ierne the names Juverna and Hibernia also may be easily deduced. In 1641 Ireland, as well as England, was involved in a -civil war which was terminated by Cromwell. In 1801 the Legislative Union between Ireland and Great Britain was effected; and the three kingdoms so connected are called "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." In 1829, the Emancipation Bill was passed by the Legislature, which relieved the Roman Catholics of the United Kingdom from the disabilities under which they had previously laboured on account of their religion. In 1831, the National System of Education, was established by the Government on principles which must insure its success." In 1847 a great famine occurred, caused by the almost entire failure of the potato crop. Since that distressing period Ireland has improved in every respect. To this desirable result many causes have contributed-such as emigration to the Colonies, the operation of the Incumbered Estates Court, and the extension of Education. b SOVEREIGNS OF ENGLAND SINCE THE NORMAN CONQUEST, WITH THE TIMES AT WHICH THEY BEGAN TO REIGN. • The number of National Schools in operation in 1873 was 7,160, and the number of children on the rolls, 1,020,130. b In 1858, an Act was passed which extended the powers of the Incumbered Estates Court to estates not incumbered; and it is now called the Landed Estates Court. FRANCE. BOUNDARIES.-France is bounded on the north by Belgium and the English Channel; on the west by the Bay of Biscay; on the south by the Pyrenees and the Mediterranean; and on the east by Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. France lies between 42° 20', and 51° N. latitude; and between 4° 40′ W., and 7° 35′ E. longitude. Its length, from Dunkirk to the Pyrenees, is 600 miles; and its breadth, from the western extremity of Bretagne to the east of the department of Vosges, is 565 miles. Its AREA, including Corsica, Savoy, and Nice, is about 203,000 square miles, and its POPULATION, according to the census of 1882, 37,672,000. DIVISIONS.-France was formerly divided into 34 PROVINCES, but at the Revolution in 1789, it was subdivided into 86 DEPARTMENTS, most of which take their names from rivers and mountains within their boundaries. In 1860 the departments of France were increased to 89, including Corsica, by the annexation of Savoy and Nice (Savoie, Haute Savoie, and Alpes-Maritimes); but Bas Rhin, a portion of Haut Rhin, nearly all Moselle, and part of Meurthe ard Vosges were ceded to Germany in 1871, and the remnants of Moselle and Meurthe were formed into one department, so that France now consists of 87 departments. Although the provinces are no longer recognised for legal purposes, they are still so familiar to the French people, and are so connected with the history of France, that we think it necessary to enumerate them in the following table, with the departments which now correspond to them : Nord. Departments. Pas-de-Calais (part of). Somme, and parts of Pas-de-Calais and Aisne. Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne, Seine-Inférieure. Côtes-du-Nord, Finisterre, Ille-et-Vilaine, Loire Maine-et-Loire. Eure-et-Loire, Loiret, Loir-et-Cher. Indre-et-Loire. Deux-Sèvres, Vendée, Vienne. Cher, Indre. Old Provinces Departments. Corrèze, and part of Haute-Vienne. Charente-Inférieure (inland part). Charente-Inférieure (maritime part). Aveyron, Dordogne, Gers, Gironde, Lot, Lot-et- Basses Pyrénées. Ariège (and the republic of Andorra). Pyrénées Orientales. Ardèche, Aude, Gard, Herault, Haute-Garonne, Basses-Alpes, Bouches-du-Rhône, Var, Vaucluse Vaucluse (west part of). Hautes-Alpes, Drome, Isère. Loire, Rhône. Puy-de-Dôme, Cantal. Ain, Côte-d'Or, Saône-et-Loire, Yonn Doubs, Jura, Haute-Saône. Haut-Rhin (Belfort). Meuse, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Vosges. Ardennes, Aube, Marne, Haute-Marne. The 87 departments of France, with their principal towns, may be arranged as in the following table: a Prior to the Franco-German war of 1870-1 Alsace and Lorraine were represented by the following departments: Alsace, Haut-Rhin, Bas-Rhin. Meuse, Moselle, Meurthe, Vosges. By the treaty of Frankfort, 10th May, 1871 (modified 12th October, 1871), Bas-Rhin and large portions of the other five departments were ceded to Germany, and are now called Elsass-Lothringen. |