Geography Generalized; Or, An Introduction to the Study of Geography on the Principles of Classification and Comparison

The Atlantic Ocean extends from the eastern shores of North and South America to the western coasts of Europe and Africa.

The Indian Ocean lies to the south of Asia, the east of Africa, and the west of Australia.

The Arctic Ocean surrounds the north pole; and the Antarctic Ocean the south pole.

SUBDIVISIONS OF THE OCEANS.

Those parts of an ocean which approach or extend into the land are usually called seas, gulfs, bays, channels, or straits. Thus the Pacific Ocean, on its western side, forms the Sea of Kamtschatka, the Sea of Okhotsk, the Gulf of Tartary, the Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea, the Chinese Sea, the Gulf of Tonquin, and the Gulf of Siam; and on its eastern side, the Gulf of California and the Bay of Panama.

The principal branches of the Atlantic Ocean on its eastern side are, the Baltic Sea, the North Sea or German Ocean, the Bay of Biscay, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Gulf of Guinea; and on its western side, Davis Strait, Hudson Strait, Hudson Bay, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Strait of Florida, Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea.

The principal branches of the Indian Ocean are, the Bay of Bengal, the Gulf of Martaban, the Arabian Sea, with its members, the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf; the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Channel of Mozambique.

The principal branches of the Arctic Ocean are, the White Sea, the Sea of Kara, the Gulf of Obi, Behring Strait, Melville Sound, Lancaster Sound, and Baffin Bay.

The Antarctic Ocean, it is supposed, has no branches.

CONTINENTS.

Four of the great divisions of land are called CONTINENTS, namely, Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. Continents are subdivided into COUNTRIES OF NATIONS, the inhabitants of which, generally speaking, differ in language, laws, customs, and manners.

The political divisions of the earth are Empires, Kingdoms, Grand Duchies, Duchies, Principalities, and Republics; which contain Cities, Towns, and Villages.

inferred that the greatest depression of the bed of the ocean corresponds to the highest elevation of the earth's surface. If this were so, the greatest depth of the sea would be about five miles, which is about the elevation of the highest mountain in the world. The deepest accurate sounding yet ascertained in the Atlantic Ocean was obtained about 100 miles north from the island of St. Thomas (Virgin group), and gave a depth of 4 miles. Some recent soundings, taken during the cruise of the Challenger, show a greater depth in the Pacific Ocean. In the North Pacific, between Japan and Admiralty Island, a depth of more than five miles has been obtained.

The extent of each of the great divisions of water in millions of square miles is estimated as follows:-Pacific Ocean, 50; Atlantic Ocean, 25; Indian Ocean, 20; Arctic and Antarctic Oceans and Great Seas, 50. Total, 145). See page 11.

An EMFIRE Consists of several countries united under one ruler, who is usually called an emperor. A KINGDOM Consists of one or more countries governed by a king or queen. GRAND DUCHIES, DUCHIES, and PRINCIPALITIES are small sovereignties governed by a grand duke, a duke, or a prince. A REPUBLIC is a country governed by a ruler elected by the people for a limited period. He is usually called a president.

MONARCH and MONARCHY are other names for king and kingdom. A limited or constitutional monarchy is a government in which the power of the sovereign is restricted by the laws, usages, and institutions of the realm. An absolute or despotic monarchy is a government where the legislative and executive functions are administered by the sovereign without his being subject to the control of any legally constituted or representative public body, such as a PARLIA

MENT.

The POPULATION of the globe is estimated at 1,450 millions. See page 12.

Of the population of the globe it is estimated that about two-sixths are Christians, one-sixth Mohammedans, and the remainder Pagans, except about 4 millions of Jews.

* The term emperor is derived from, and originally referred to the IMPERATOR of the Romans. The German emperors assumed the title as successors of Charlemagne, who was crowned Emperor of the West in the year 800; and the Czar (that is, the Cæsar) of Russia, and the Sultan of Constantinople affect it as if succeeding to the Roman Empire of the East. The term in itself implies greater power and more extensive sway than that of king; and hence it was assumed by Napoleon in 1804; and, for a similar reason, it was assumed by his no less ambitious successor, Napoleon III.

b Monarch is derived from the Greek words monos, one or alone, and archō, I govern.

Christianity is the religion of Europe and of European settlements in every part of the world. Mohammedanism prevails in the northern part of Africa, and the western parts of Asia. The Jews are more numerous in Poland than in any other country, but they are found in most of the principal cities of the world. Paganism is the religion of the populous countries of south-eastern Asia, and of savages in all parts of the world. Of Paganism there are various systems, but they all resemble each other in their absurdity, idolatry, and immorality.

EUROPE

EUROPE is the smallest, but by far the most important and the most powerful of the great divisions of the globe. For the grandeur of its natural features it is the least distinguished; but in knowledge, civilization, and refinement, it surpasses all the others."

It is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by Asia, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the south by the Mediterranean, the Archipelago, the Sea of Marmora, the Black Sea, and the Caucasian Mountains.

Its length from the mouth of the river Kara, in the northeastern extremity of Russia, to Cape Roca in Portugal, is nearly 3,400 miles; and its breadth from Nordkyn in Finmark, to Tarifa Point in Spain, is about 2,400 miles.

a See page 186 for a full description of the different races into which mankind has been divided; and add the following as the chief characteristics of the Caucasian race:-The Caucasian or European race have proved themselves superior to all the others in enterprise, energy, and courage. The inhabitants of every country and climate have felt and acknowledged their superiority, and the whole world seems destined, at no distant day, to come under their dominion. great portion of the Old World is already subject to their sway, and the whole of the New Continent may be said to belong to them and their descendants. In the remote and multitudinous islands of the Pacific Ocean, the voices of their missionaries are heard; and their colonists are pushing their settlements over the barbarous and far distant continent of Australia.

But the Caucasian or European race have distinguished themselves from the other inhabitants of the world still more by the arts of peace-continued advancement in civilization-and successful cultivation of science and literature; and, in fact, it is to these studies, and to the results produced by them, that their superiority in arms is principally due.

The Caucasians of Europe are divided into three great families-the Celtic, the Gothic or Teutonic, and the Sclavonic. The Gothic is subdivided into the Scandinavian and German families. The former includes the Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians; and the latter, the Germans, the Anglo-Saxons, and the Dutch. Many of these races have more or less amalgamated, and their languages have been intermixed.

b Nordkyn.-The North Cape is in the island of Mageröe, and not in the mainland. Nordkyn means North cape or head. The root of kyn is the Celtic cean or ken, the head; as in Kenmore, the great head; Kinnaird, the head of the heights; Cantyre, the head of the land.

Europe lies between the parallels of 36° and 710 N.L.: and between the meridians of 10° 29′ W., and about 60° E.L.a

The AREA or superficial extent of Europe, including the islands, is estimated at upwards of 3 millions of English square miles; and the POPULATION is now (1881) supposed to amount to 325 millions.

GENERAL DIVISIONS OF EUROPE.

The north of Europe consists of Lapland, Finland, the northern parts of Russia, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. The north-east of Europe is occupied by Russia, and the south-east by Turkey and Greece.

The middle regions of Europe comprise Austria, the German Empire, Switzerland; and towards the coast, France, Belgium, and Holland.

The south of Europe consists of three great projections or peninsulas, which comprise Spain and Portugal, Italy, Greece and Turkey.

In the west of Europe, are the British Islands, Great Britain, or England and Scotland, and Ireland.

The northern countries of Europe lie, generally speaking, north of the parallel of 55°; the middle countries, between 55° and 45°; and the southern countries, to the south of the parallel of 45°.

GENERAL TEMPERATURE.

The climate of the NORTHERN Countries of Europe is cold towards the north, and temperate towards the south.

The climate of the MIDDLE countries is temperate towards the north, and warm towards the south.

The climate of the SOUTHERN countries is warm towards the north, and hot towards the south.

The PRODUCTIONS of the northern, middle, and southern countries of Europe vary with their CLIMATES. See page 377.

POLITICAL DIVISIONS, 1883.

The present political divisions of Europe amount to 49-namely, 4 empires; 15 kingdoms; 6 grand duchies; 5 duchies; 12 principalities; 4 republics; and 3 free towns.

• The north-eastern extremity of European Russia extends to about 68° east longitude.