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The HUMAN FAMILY is usually divided into five great branches or varieties, namely, the Caucasian or European, the Mongolian or Asiatic, the Ethiopic or African, the Malayan, and the Indian or native American. The colour of the skin is so different in each of these races, that a good popular division of them, and consequently of the whole human family, would be into WHITE, YELLOW, BLACK, BROWN, and RED MEN. We shall add the chief characteristics of each race.

The CAUCASIAN RACE was so called on the supposition that they originally came from the valleys of the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian Seas- a region not far distant from the cradle of mankind. This supposition is countenanced, if not confirmed, by the fact that the distinguishing features of this race are found, even at the present day, in the greatest perfection among the inhabitants of those primitive regions. The Georgians and Circassians, for instance, afford perfect specimens of it.

The Caucasian race is distinguished from all the rest by a natural complexion of white, tinged with red; as in infants, and in persons not exposed to the influences of the sun and air. Generally speaking, the head is round, the forehead expanded, the face oval, the nose thin, straight, or slightly aquiline the mouth small, and the chin full and rounded. The hair varies in colour from fair to black, and is generally soft, flowing, or slightly curled; and the eyes from blue to dark brown."

The Caucasian race includes the whole European family (except the Laplanders and Finns) with their descendants in America, &c.; also the nations of Western Asia, as far as the river Obi, the Bolor

they came into the world, and for the first six or eight years of their existence, they were, perhaps very much alike, and neither their parents nor playfellows could perceive any remarkable difference. About that age, or soon after, they come to be employed in very different occupations. The difference of talents comes then to be taken notice of, and widens by degrees, till at last the vanity of the philosopher is willing to acknowledge scarce any resemblance."—ADAM SMITH.

a Mr. M'Culloch combats the general opinion upon this point. See his Geographical Dictionary (article EUROPE).

The Caucasians are of all complexions, according to the climate— but white is the natural colour. Thus a native of Northern Europe is fair; of Central, less so; of Southern, swarthy; a Moor more so, an Arab olive, and a Hindoo nearly black. Such of the Hindoo women as have never been exposed to the sun, are often as fair as the inhabitants of the south of Europe.

e Fair and auburn hair, and blue eyes, are peculiar to the Caucasian

race.

Tagh and Himalaya Mountains and the Ganges; and the people of northern Africa, Egypt, and Abyssinia."

The MONGOLIAN RACE comprises the natives of Asia beyond the Obi, the Bolor Tagh, and Himalaya Mountains, and the Ganges (except the inhabitants of Malacca); as the Mongolians, the Chinese, the Japanese, the people of Thibet, Boutan, and Indo-China, the inhabitants of the Arctic regions; as the Samoieds, Kamtschatdales, Finns, Laplanders, and Esquimaux. The chief characteristics of this race are, the skin yellow or olive, the head almost square, the forehead low and narrow, the face large and flat, the nose small and flat, the mouth wide, the lips thick, the chin pointed, and the cheekbones prominent. The hair is coarse, lank, black, and thin; and their eyes small, black, and rising in an oblique line from the nose to the temples.

The ETHIOPIC or NEGRO RACE comprises all the natives of Africa to the South of the Sahara and Abyssinia; also the natives of New Holland, Tasmania, Papua or New Guinea, New Britain, Solomon Isles, New Georgia, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, the Fiji Islands, and also various tribes in the Indian Archipelago. The chief characteristics of this race are the skin black; the head narrow and compressed at the sides; the forehead low and retreating; the cheek-bones prominent; the nose large and flat; the lips thick, particularly the upper one; the jaws narrow and projecting; the chin small and retracted; the eyes black; and the hair black, coarse, frizzled, and woolly.

The MALAY RACE includes the natives of Malaya, Ceylon, the Asiatic Islands, New Zealand, and Polynesia. In this race the skin is brown or tawny; the form of the head intermediate between that of the European and Ethiopic races; the forehead a little arched or rounded; the nose full and broad, and thick towards the point, or what is called a bottle-nose; the upper jaw somewhat less projecting; and the features generally more prominent than in the negro; the eyes black; and the hair black, coarse, curled, and abundant.

The INDIAN or AMERICAN RACE comprises all the native American tribes, except the Esquimaux. The colour of their skin is reddish, resembling that of copper or cinnamon; the forehead is short and depressed; the eyes sunk; the face broad, without being flat; the nose rather flat, but prominent; the nostrils very open; the cheek-bones high; the beard thin and scanty; and the hair black and lank.

The Malay race approximates to the Ethiopic, and the Indian to the Mongolian.

The Jews, the ancient Egyptians, the Arabs, the Babylonians, Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Afghans, Turks, Armenians, Hindoos, &c., belong to the Caucasian race. See under the description of Europe for the chief characteristics of the Caucasian race.

INTRODUCTION TO ASTRONOMY.

TEACHERS Should prepare their pupils for the study of ASTRONOMY by directing their attention to the apparent motions and relative positions of the heavenly bodies. For this purpose let them be conducted to some place in their neighbourhood which commands an uninterrupted view of the horizon. Looking around them, they will observe that they appear to be in the centre of an immense circle, the circumference of which is formed by the apparent meeting of the earta and sky. The circumference of this imaginary circle, it may be observed, is called the HORIZON, because it bounds or limits the view of the observer.

They will observe also that the heavens present the appear ance of a vast concave hemisphere, every part of which seems equally distant from them; or, in other words, in the centre of which they appear to stand.

During the day the magnificent dome of the heavens is lighted up by the sun, which, after rising above the eastern horizon, and traversing the sky in a circular course, disappears in the west. When the sun sinks beneath our horizon, the stars, which seem to be scattered in thousands over the vault of heaven, begin to make their appearance; and the moon, at her appointed time, hangs out her silvery lamp, as if in aid of their too distant light.

On the following morning the sun reappears in the east, and after going over the same course as on the preceding day, he disappears again in the west. The daily repetition of this magnificent phenomenon has made it so familiar to our eyes, that we, perhaps, cease to regard it with wonder and admiration; but to the young and inquiring mind such questions naturally suggest themselves-is it the same brilliant body that traverses the heavens day after day, dispensing light and heat to the earth which we inhabit? Or is

there a new sun every day? If it is the same sun as it appears to be, what becomes of it during the night? Or how is it that, after disappearing from our view in the evening, in the west, it reappears the following morning in the opposite point of the heavens? Does it continue its circular course under the earth during the night, and thus, by completing the circle, return to the point from which it set out in the morning? If so, the earth is not, as it appears to be, a vast plain or flat surface extending to the heavens. It must be separate or detached from the heavens (at least on the eastern and western sides), otherwise the sun and the stars-for it will be found that they have a similar motion—could not revolve round it in this way.

Such observations and such inferences young and inquiring minds will naturally make; and it will be the part of the instructor to lead his pupils to make such observations, and to assist them in coming to correct conclusions. It was in this way that astronomy was originally studied, long before globes were invented or books written, and it is in this way the first and great principles of the science should still be taught. Let the teacher therefore, conduct his pupils step by step over the ground which the first discoverers trod, and the difficulties of astronomy, which to young and uninstructed minds seem so numerous and so formidable, will gradually disappear-nay more, these very difficulties will be converted into subjects of admiration and delight.

Let us now take a view of the starry heavens. The stars appear to be innumerable, and they are so in reality, though to the naked eye there are scarcely ever so many as two thousand visible, even in the brightest nights. At first view they appear to be fixed in the heavens, but if after short intervals we repeat our observations, we shall find that, like the sun, they have a regular motion from east to west. For if, having observed any particular star to be in a line with our eye, or some lofty object, such as a tree or the top of a chimney, we repeat our observation in, say an hour after,

a For example, having of themselves come to the conclusion that the earth must be detached from the heavens on the east and west sides, they may be led to infer by analogy that it is detached from the heavens on every side, or all round the horizon. The importance of this fact is obvious; for if the earth is detached from the heavens on every side, it must be self-supported. See page 21.

we shall find that this star, and the others which we may have noticed in the vicinity of it, have moved a considerable space to the westward. The stars, too, which we observe near the western horizon will in a short time disappear beneath it; whilst others, not now visible, will soon make their appearance in the east. But while the stars in general appear, like the sun, to rise in the east and set in the west, there are others which appear to revolve round a fixed point in the heavens, without ever reaching so far as our horizon. This point is called the POLE of the heavens, because the whole celestial sphere appears to turn round it as on a pivot, from east to west, in twenty-four hours, carrying with it in the same direction, and in the same time, the sun, moon, and stars.

The apparent diurnal motion of the heavens may be illustrated in the following simple manner :-Through a small glass globe, such as those out of which watch glasses are cut, pass a knitting-needle from the circular aperture at the bottom to the point opposite, and make the globe turn round upon it as upon an axis. The globe will represent the celestial sphere, and the knitting-needle the axis on which it is supposed to turn. Before introducing the imaginary axis, affix to its middle point a small ball about the size of a

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a The circular aperture at the shank or pipe through which the globe was blown.

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