still farther to the west is the chain of Mount Pindus, with which all the mountains in Greece are more or less connected.

The ancients had a most exaggerated idea of the height of these mountains; but it has been found that few of their summits attain the altitude of 4,000 feet, and that their average elevation is little more than 2,000 feet. They are, however, very rugged and precipitous; and the passes through them are extremely difficult. The Gate of Trajan, by which the communication between Vienna and Constantinople is kept up, is the easiest and most frequented pass. It is about the meridian of 24° E. But in the groups or ranges connected with the main chain of the Balkans there are several mountains between 7,000 and 8,000 feet high, and some even higher; as Mount Scardus of the Tchar-dagh group, which is about 9,700 feet above the level of the sea.

The Carpathian Mountains rise near Presburg on the Danube, and extend in a semicircular curve round the north and north-east of Hungary, and the east and south of Transylvania, to the banks of the same river near Orsova, where, with the opposite and terminating range of the Northern Balkans, they form the celebrated defile or passage of the Iron Gate. The extent or length of this curve or course is upwards of 800 miles; and the breadth of the regions which they Occupy with their ranges, plateaus, and valleys, varies from 20 to 200 miles.

The Carpathians may be divided into three ranges-1. The Little Carpathians, which extend from their rise near the Danube to about the meridian of 19° E., near the sources of the Oder and the Vistula. 2. The Western Carpathians, which extend from the Little Carpathians to about the meridian of 25° E. This, which is the principal or main range of the Carpathians, separates Hungary on the north and north-east from Galicia and the Bukowina. 3. The Eastern Carpathians, which extend from the eastward termination of the Western Carpathians to the Danube, separating Transylvania from the Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia.

The average elevation of the higher mountains of the system is between 5,000 and 6,000 feet; but in the groups of Tatra, Lomnitz, and Bisztra, which are connected with the Western Carpathians, there are several summits upwards of 8,000 feet high. And in Transylvania, in which there are numerous groups and branches connected with the Eastern Carpathians, there are peaks still higher.

Many of the summits of the Carpathians are of a pyramidal form, and the principal chain has a grand and imposing appearance; but they are in general very rugged and abrupt, and the passes

• Some of their writers assert that these mountains are so high that the Euxine (Black Sea) and Adriatic can be seen from them at the same time.

through them are narrow and difficult. On the northern or convex side of the semicircle they are abrupt and precipitous; but on the opposite side the descent to the great plain of Hungary is gradual and easy. There are many wild mountain districts and picturesque valleys connected with them, particularly in the group of Tatra, which is embraced by the two upper streams of the Waag.

The Carpathians are rich in gold, silver, copper, lead, mercury, and rock salt. Their sides are often covered with forests, and their valleys produce excellent grain.

The German or Hercynian Mountains extend westward from the Carpathians, near the source of the Oder, to the banks of the Rhine. They separate Germany into two great natural divisions-Upper and Lower Germany, or, as they are usually called, South and North Germany. The eastern part of their range, between Moravia and Austrian Silesia, is called the Sudetic Mountains. This range, on reaching Bohemia, divides into two branches, which encircle it on all sides; the Riesen-gebirge on the north-east, the Erz-gebirge on the north-west, the Moravian Mountains on the south-east, and the Bohmer-Wald or Bohemian Mountains on the south-west. The average elevation of these mountains is between 2,000 and 3,000 feet. Schnee-Koppe, in the Riesen-gebirge range, in which the most elevated summits occur, is 5,274 feet above the level of the sea; and, as its name denotes, its summit is generally covered with snow. Elbe rises on its southern side.

The

From the western extremity of Bohemia, near the junction of the Bohmer-Wald and Erz-gebirge Mountains, two more ranges branch off, one of which, proceeding in a north-west direction, extends to Hanover, where it is called the Harz Mountains; and the other, stretching in a south-westerly direction, passes over the high table-land of Bavaria, and through the western part of Wurtemberg to Baden, where it terminates in the Schwarz-Wald or Black Forest range on the banks of the Rhine, near the south-western extremity of Germany. The intermediate parts of both these ranges are called by various names. The average elevation of the Harz Mountains is under 3,000 feet, and the highest of them is the Brocken, which is 3,658 feet. The general altitude of the Schwarz

Hercynian. This term is derived from the Hercynia silva of Tacitus, an immense forest, which, in his time, extended over the greater part of the regions between the Danube and the Baltic.

Sudetic. This term is sometimes applied to all the mountains between the sources of the Oder and the Elster, a tributary of the Elbe.

Riesen-gebirge.-That is, the Giant Mountains.

Erz-gebirge.-That is, the metallic Mountains. These mountains are richer in metal than any other range in Europe, and the Harz Mountains rank next in mineral wealth.

• Brocken.-This mountain is remarkable for the optical phenomenon

Wald range is rather less, but it contains the highest mountain in Western Germany, namely, Feldberg, which is 4,675 feet above the

level of the sea.

The Mountains of France-not including the ranges of the Alps which separate it from Italy and Switzerland, nor the Pyrenees which form the boundary between it and Spain-are the chains of the Cevennes and the Vosges, the Mountains of Auvergne, and the Mountains of Forez.

The Cevennes are a long and narrow chain which commences in Languedoc, north of the Pyrenees, and extending in a northerly direction, under different names, to the plateau or heights of Langres, forms the western boundary of the valley or basin of the Rhone, and also of its tributary the Saône. It also forms the eastern boundary or watershed of the streams which flow into the Bay of Biscay; as the Garonne and the Loire, and their numerous affluents.

The average elevation of the Cevennes Mountains is between 2,000 and 3,000 feet; and their highest summits are Mont Mezin and Mont Lozère. The former is 5,794 feet high, and the latter 4,884 feet.

The heights of Langres, which intervene between the head waters of the Marne and the Saône, connect the chain of the Vosges Mountains with that of the Cevennes. From this point the Vosges, extending in a northerly direction, and nearly parallel to the Rhine, form the boundary between the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. On the opposite side of the Rhine, and in a parallel direction, is the Schwarz-Wald or Black Forest range.

The average elevation of the Vosges Mountains is about the same as that of the Cevennes. The Ballon d'Alsace is their highest summit. It is 4,688 feet above the level of the sea.

The vine-covered slopes of the Vosges form a striking portion of the beautiful scenery of the Rhine; and the Schwarz-Wald, on the opposite side of the river, greatly adds to the beauty of it.

The Mountains of Auvergne are connected with the Cevennes on the west side. They extend in a north-westerly direction, and in detached groups, through the ancient province of Auvergne, and separate the basins of the Allier, Cher, and Creuse from those of the Lot and Dordogne. Their most elevated summits are Puy de Sancy (in the group of Côte d'Or), Plomb du Cantal, and Puy de Dôme, which are respectively 6,188, 6,093, and 4,806 feet high.

Several of the Auvergne Mountains are extinct volcanoes, and their general aspect is wild and rugged.

The Mountains of Forez are also connected with the Cevennes on

which is called "the Spectre of the Brocken." It is a gigantic reproduction of the figure of the spectator, and of the surrounding objects, upon the white veil of mist which envelopes the mountain at early dawn. This mountain is within the Prussian territory.

the west side. They extend between the valleys of the Upper Loire and its tributary the Allier. Their average elevation is about 2,000 feet.

The wooded heights of Ardennes, or the Forest of Ardennes, with which Shakespeare has made us familiar, extend northward from the heights of Langres, between the valleys of the upper portions of the Moselle and the Meuse. Their greatest height is under 1,800 feet. The Scandinavian or Dovre-field Mountains extend through the whole length of the Peninsula, from the Naze on the Skager-rack to Nordkyn on the Arctic Ocean, a distance little short of 1,100 miles. They do not, however, as is usually represented, form a continuous chain or ridge. On the contrary, they consist of-particularly in Norway-a series or succession of high table-lands, occasionally separated by deep and narrow valleys. On these table-lands or plateaus, which the Norwegians call fields, there are numerous groups of mountains and high ridges in all directions. The chain of heights formed by these mountain-ranges divides the streams and rivers which flow into the Atlantic Ocean from those which flow into the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia.

The four principal plateaus in Norway, beginning at the south, are Hardanger-field, Lang-field, Sogne-field, and Dovre-field. Dovre-field, which lies between the 62nd and the 63rd parallels, is the highest and most extensive of these plateaus, and hence its name is usually given to the whole range or mountain system. Its elevation above the sea is about 3,000 feet; and on it is the lofty Snae-hatten, and several other mountains, whose summits are covered with perpetual snow. Snae-hatten, which is 7,620 feet above the level of the sea, was formerly considered the highest mountain of the whole system; but it has been ascertained that there is a more elevated summit on the Lang-field plateau, namely Skagstol-tind, which is 8,670 feet high.

The main-ridge of the Dovre-field Mountains extends through the middle of Norway, from the 59th to the 62nd parallel. From about this point it bends to the north-east towards Sweden, and from the 63rd parallel it forms the boundary between the two countries, under the name of the Kiolen Mountains.

The western or Atlantic side of the Scandinavian Mountains is much more precipitous and abrupt than the eastern side. High mountain ridges often extend to the very coast, and between them the sea penetrates far into the land, in narrow creeks, which the natives call fiords. These fiords are numerous along the whole coast of Norway, and many of them extend upwards of 50 miles inland. Many of them, too, have a most picturesque appearance. On each side are rugged rocks, or mountain heights, often covered with pine forests, which contrast beautifully with their deep and clear waters.

The Ural or Oural Mountains extend from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the parallel of 51° 50′, near Orenburg-a distance

of more than 1,200 miles. They form a part of the boundary between Europe and Asia; the river of the same name, the Caspian Sea, and the Caucasian Mountains forming the remainder. Their average elevation is between 2,000 and 3,000 feet; but some of their summits are much higher. Mount Yaman (in lat. 54°, long. 58°,) is 5,400 feet above the level of the sea; and Mount Iremel, not far to the north of it, is 5,070 feet. In some parts of their course, particularly about the 57th parallel, they become so low as not to deserve the name of mountains. It is over this depression, near the fortress of Ekaterinburg, that the great road from Russia to Siberia is carried.

The Ural Mountains are rich in gold, platina, and other metals, particularly between the parallels of 54° and 60° north latitude.

The mountains of Europe, which we have briefly described, might be divided into nine distinct systems. Of these three are in the south of Europe, near the Mediterranean and its branches, namely, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Balkan Mountains; three are in central Europe, namely, the mountains of France, Germany, and Hungary; and three in the north-west, the north-east, and the south-east of Europe, namely, the Scandinavian, the Ural, and the Caucasian Mountains. The two last ranges are, however, half Asiatic.

THE PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS OF AFRICA.

The most important mountain ranges in Africa are those which occur in the East African meridian chain, extending nearly from the Cape of Good Hope to Abyssinia and the mountains near Cape Gardafui. These mountains, at the equator, attain a height of 22,000 feet. Mount Kenia is 22,814 feet, and Kilimandjaro is 20,000 feet in height.

The Abyssinian Mountains rise in irregular groups and detached masses above the high table-land of the same name. In the province of Samien, in the north of Abyssinia, the highest summits occur, some of which are upwards of 15,000 feet above the level of the sea. Ras Detschen which is supposed to be the most elevated summit, is 15,986 feet high. From the table-land of Abyssinia to the delta of the Nile, a series or succession of rocky hills and detached mountain groups extends along the western shores of the Red Sea.

MOUNT ATLAS and its subordinate ranges are the principal mountains in North Africa. They extend in a direction nearly parallel to the Mediterranean, from the shores of the Atlantic to the Gulf of Sidra; but they do not form one continuous chain throughout their course. In many places they consist of parallel ranges and detached groups, particularly to the eastward of the 4th meridian of west longitude. In passing through Morocco they attain their highest altitude; and, strictly speaking, the name Atlas belongs only to this portion of the range. Miltsin, near the city of Morocco, is their highest known summit. Its elevation is 11,400 feet; but it is sup