equal parts will give children correct ideas, both of the form of the earth, and of the two hemispheres, or map of the world. When the teacher is explaining the form of the earth, he should hold the small globe in his hand; and then, the two hemispheres into which it is supposed to be divided, he should take it asunder, and place the two half globes against the wall, with their edges in contact, and in juxtaposition with a map of the world.

Latitude, longitude, meridians, parallels, and zones, which, to children, appear as so many mysteries, may be simply and clearly taught by the use of such a globe. The tropics, polar, and other circles may be easily added and explained; and if the globe be painted black, it will be easy to give an outline in chalk of the relative position and extent of the great division of the earth's surface into continents and oceans. For example, ask the pupil to point to the spot where England should be, and if he recollects its latitude and longitude, he will at once determine its proper position. He will say, that as it lies between the parallels of 50° and 56° north latitude, it is more than half-way between the equator and north pole; and, of course, under the first meridian, which passes through the east of it. The position of Ireland and Scotland-the one to

kept in mind that the north side of it is not towards the north, but in the direction of the zenith.

But before the pupils are introduced to a map, they should be quite familiar with the principal points of the horizon as recommended, page 7. In a map these points may be represented thus:

The small globes so divided are called SEMI-GLOBES; and the author strongly recommends their use to every person who undertakes to teach geography to children. In fact, in every school in which there is a map of the world, a small globe so divided should be placed beside it.

[Semi-globes may be had from Sullivan, Brothers, Marlboroughstreet, Dublin.]

the west, the other to the north, of England, and forming a portion of it may then be pointed to, or dotted in chalk; and so of other countries. In short, such a globe has, besides its peculiar advantages, all the utility of a blank or outline map.

The cause of day and night, and the changes of the seasons, may also be simply and clearly explained by means of two little wooden globes, such as are used in this establishment. For explaining the seasons we use a simple contrivance, which shows, at one view, the different positions of the earth with regard to the sun during the summer and winter solstices, and also the equinoxes. It consists of four small balls, painted and fixed, as represented in the diagram, page 30, and a larger ball in the centre (where the candle is supposed to be), which represents the sun. The central ball stands upon a frame like a candlestick (upon the top of which it may be made to turn as on a pivot), and supports the other by four straight wires, which issue from its centre at right angles to each other. These wires enter the small globes at the equinoctial and solstitial points; and as they represent the perpendicular rays of light from the sun at those seasons, they form the centre of the circle of illumination; which is represented by painting the half of each of the small globes, from this point, white.

The different phases of the moon may also be familiarly explained by means of small globes similarly painted; and the planetary system generally. This we do; and it is found a much easier, and, therefore, a much better way of explaining them, than by means of an orrery, which is not only a complicated, but an incorrecta representation of the motions, magnitudes, and distances of the heavenly bodies. The simpler the contrivance, the better for illustration, and the nearer the resemblance to the simple but sublime machinery of nature to the works of that Great Being, who

"Bids seed time, harvest, equal course maintain,

Through reconciled extremes of drought and rain;
Builds life on death, on change duration founds;

And makes the eternal wheels to know their rounds."

"Choose any well-levelled field or bowling-green; on it place a globe two feet in diameter; this will represent the sun; Mercury will be represented by a grain of mustard-seed on the circumference of a circle, 164 feet in diameter, for its orb.t; Venus, a pea, on a circle of 284 feet in diameter; the Earth, also a pea, on a circle of 430 feet Mars, a rather large pin's head, on a circle of 654 feet; Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas (Asteroids), grains of sand, in orbits of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet; Jupiter, a moderately-sized orange, in a circle nearly half a mile across; Saturn, a small orange, on a circle of four-fifths of a mile; and Uranus, a full-sized cherry, or small plum, upon the cireumference of a circle more than a mile and a half in diameter. As to getting correct notions on this subject by drawing circles on paper, or still worse, from those very childish toys called orreries, it is out of the question."—Sir J. Herschel's Astronomy,

Having taught the pupils as much of Mathematical Geography, as will enable them to comprehend the figure, magnitude, and motions of the earth, their attention is directed to the great divisions into which its surface is naturally divided; or, in other words, they are introduced to Physical Geography.

We begin by giving them general views and leading ideas. Having made them observe that there is far more water than land upon the surface of the globe, we inform them that the proportion is probably as 7 to 2, or, in other words, that nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface are covered with water.

We then inform them that the entire surface of the globe, land and water included, is supposed to contain about 197 millions of English square miles;a and they will draw the conclusion, that that portion of it which consists of land is only 51 millions. They are then told that these 51 millions of square miles are distributed among the five great divisions of land into which the earth's surface is divided; and having pointed them out to them on a map of the world, they are asked to give their opinion as to the relative extent of each. This they will readily do; and their answers will, generally speaking, be found to correspond very nearly with the estimated extent, as given in books. For example, if they are asked how much Asia, as it appears on the map, is larger than Europe, they will very probably reply that it is about five times as large; and with regard to the other great divisions, and the principal subdivisions of them, similar questions are put, and similar answers elicited. And after they have gone through these preliminary exercises, the next step is to make them acquainted with the estimated extent of each of the great divisions of the earth's surface, and also the estimated extent of each of the principal or most important countries which they contain.

These proportions are not only pleasing to the pupils, but are calculated to give them clear ideas of the comparative extent of land and water on the earth's surface; and of the real and relative size of each of the great continents, and of the principal countries into which they are divided.

They are next told the estimated amount of the POPULATION of the world, and of each of the great divisions into which it is divided; and they will soon make the discovery that Asia contains more than

* The superficies of a globe is found by multiplying the circumference by the diameter, or the square of the diameter by 3.

The amount of the population of the world has been variously estimated; and it is obvious that all calculations on this subject are little more than conjectures. It is only with regard to Europe, and perhaps America, that they should be considered as approximating to the truth.

Balbi estimated the amount of the population of the globe at 737 millions and Malte Brun at only 625 millions; but the amount is now

one-half of the population of the world; Europe, about one-fourth; and so on. And before going farther they are made acquainted with the difference between the absolute and relative population of a continent or country. They are asked, for instance, whether Asia or Europe is the more populous; and as their answer would probably be Asia, they are shown that this is really not so. For upon dividing the amount of the population in each by the number of square miles which they contain, it will be seen that in Europe there are about 79 persons to the square mile; and in Asia only about 47. Similar information is subsequently given; and similar questions asked about the population of the principal countries in the world.

The great physical features and natural boundaries of the several continents are next pointed out. For instance, South America is, generally speaking, divided by mountains and rivers into five great divisions namely, the western declivity between the Andes and Pacific Ocean; the basin of the Orinoco; the basin of the Amazon; the basin of the Paraguay; and Patagonia or the southern extremity. In like manner, North America is divided into five great natural divisions—namely, the basin of the Mississippi; the western declivity between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean; the

estimated at 1,450 millions. The following estimates are from the best and most recent authorities:

In connexion with the amount of the population of the world, the following particulars regarding the duration of HUMAN LIFE may be stated:

One-fifth of all who are born die within a year after birth.

before the completion of fifth year before the age of seventeen.

Only six per cent. reach the age of 75 years.

Only one in 500 reaches

Only one in 1,000

99

80

The average duration of human life is about thirty years.

northern declivity between the Great Lakes and the Arctic Ocean; the eastern declivity, between the Alleghany Mountains and the Atlantic; and the basin of the St. Lawrence.

Again, Europe may be traversed from S.W. to N.E. without crossing any considerable river. Europe is, therefore, divided by mountains and elevated regions into two grand declivities, namely, the north-western and the south-eastern; and the great rivers, generally speaking, will consequently flow in a N.W. or S. E. direction. The Volga, the Dnieper, the Don, the Danube, &c., flow in the latter, and the Rhine, the Elbe, the Vistula, the Oder, &c., in the former direction. Of course there are other declivities, and consequently rivers in other directions, but we are taking a general view.

The physical features and natural divisions of Asia are peculiarly grand and striking. In the centre is the great table-land or elevated regions between the Altai Mountains on the north, and the stupendous range of the Himalayas on the south. Between this elevated region and the Arctic Ocean, is the great northern declivity, which extends from the Uralian Mountains on the west, to the rocky shores of the Pacific on the east.

The great southern or south-western declivity of Asia comprehends all the countries southward of the Himalaya Mountains, the Caucasian, and the intermediate chains-that is, generally speaking, the Eastern and Western Peninsula, Persia, Arabia, and Syria.

The great eastern declivity comprehends China, Corea, and the eastern part of Chinese Tartary. The western declivity, which is much less extensive than the others, lies to the west of the Beloor Tagh, and the chain of mountains which connects the Himalaya with the Altaian ranges. These grand natural divisions may be traced by the great mountain ranges which separate them, and the immense rivers which flow through them. For instance, the northern declivity is shown by the course of the Lena, the Yenessei, and the Obi; the eastern, by the Amur, the Hoang-ho, and the Yang-tse-kiang; and the southern, by the Euphrates, Tigris, Indus, Ganges, Irrawaddy, and Cambodia; and the western, by the Syr or Sihon (Jaxartes), and the Amoo or Jihon (Oxus).

A knowledge of the great mountain ranges is of far greater utility to pupils in geography than is generally thought. Upon their height, direction, and distance from the sea, depend, generally speaking, the magnitude and directions of the rivers. If near the sea, the rivers which flow from them are short, rapid, and ill-adapted for navigation. Such rivers we may expect to find between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean. If at a great distance from the sea, the rivers which flow from them, will be long, gentle, and navigable. Upon such rivers man takes up his abode-towns are built-commerce commences and civilization follows in its train.

When the pupils are made acquainted with the general outlines and natural divisions of the earth's surface, we proceed to Political