vate its social and moral character among its confederate States and in the eyes of the world." The legislature accordingly voted him, without a single dissenting voice in either House, a part of the money that he had spent for the public good. The committee that reported the resolution said it was not proposed to pay him off, or to rob him of the wellearned conviction that he was a benefactor of the State; the amount was made small because the committee believed that a small amount would be more agreeable to his feelings than a larger one.

It is easy for the carping critic at this day to say that Horace Mann was not called upon thus to sacrifice himself for the public good of Massachusetts; that, in the long run, he would only injure the cause, and the State by encouraging it in small ideas and little ways. We must remember, however, that the cause of popular education was feeble in 1837-1848 as compared with the closing years of the century. We must remember, also, the circumspection with which both the Board and the Secretary were compelled to acquit themselves in their official capacities. There is no telling what plans and prospects of future good might have been overturned in those precarious times if a few hundred dollars more had been charged up to the State in the Secretary's expense account. Still, this is only an economical view of the subject. Sacrifices like these are incident to the life of any man who takes the next generation for his client. Such a man, like the Great Apostle, will not count his life dear unto himself, so that he may finish with joy the ministry that he has received.

CHAPTER VI

THE MASSACHUSETTS NORMAL SCHOOLS

NORMAL School is the unfortunate name that is given in the United States and some other countries to a school intended for the professional preparation of teachers. The word "normal" is derived from norm, norma, meaning rule, pattern, model, or standard, and signifies, in general, serving to fix a rule or standard. A Normal school, therefore, has to do with fixing the norm or rule of teaching; but whether the name was given because the school was expected formally to teach the norm, to exemplify it in practice, or to do both of these things, history does not inform us. It will perhaps answer the purpose of all but the curious to state, that the Normal school devotes itself, in part at least, to teaching the principles and the rules of teaching. We borrowed the name, but not the thing, from France, where it came into vogue at the time of the Revolution.1

In view of the obvious advantages of such a school,

1 Edward Everett said: "The name was adopted to designate the schools for teachers established in Massachusetts, because it is already in use to denote similar institutions in Europe; because it applies exclusively to schools of this kind, and prevents their being confounded with any others; and because it is short and of convenient use. It has been already adopted in England and in our sister States in writing and speaking of institutions for the education of teachers."- Address on Normal Schools.

it is strange that we meet with it for the first time at such a late date in educational history. Démia, of Lyons, appears to have established in that city a sort of seminary for teaching teachers about the year 1675. But the credit of establishing the first Normal school is commonly ascribed to the Abbé de La Salle, founder of the Institute of the Christian Brethren. In 1685 this noble priest and educator opened at Rheims an institution that he called a seminary for schoolmasters, and at a later day a second one at Paris. Still the system of Normal schools now existing in France does not date from the close of the seventeenth century; the idea never took a real hold of the French mind until the Revolution set in motion the forces that have democratized education.

But it is to Germany that we must look for the historical antecedents of our American Normal schools. The German system of such schools became well established in Prussia in the reign of Frederick the Great, and went forth from that country to subdue the world. Even France, in a sense, is indebted to Germany for her Normal schools. In Germany the school is known, however, as the teachers' seminary, and in England and Scotland as the teachers' training school or training college. Perhaps there is a suggestion of the French mind in the use, in this connection, of the word "normal."

The second chapter of this work shows that the qualifications of teachers had a stronger hold on Horace Mann's forerunners than any other educational idea. From Ticknor to Carter it was the burden of their cry. But down to 1835 there is no direct evidence showing

that American educators were acquainted with what had been done in this line in Europe. There is no reference to it in the several writings that have been referred to in Chapter II. The German teachers' seminary was introduced to the American public in a very simple, and yet in a very interesting, way. Rev. Charles Brooks, pastor of a church at Hingham, Massachusetts, while on his outward voyage to Europe, in the autumn of 1834, had for a companion Dr. H. Julius, then returning from a mission to study the prison systems of the United States on which he had been sent by the Prussian government, and from him he learned the details of the Prussian educa

tional system. When in Germany Mr. Brooks improved the opportunity to extend his knowledge of a subject that had interested him deeply, and on his return home he entered upon an extended educational mission, having for its object the improvement of common schools. In 1835-1837 he addressed many meetings in different parts of Massachusetts, in which he gave an account of the Prussian system of public instruction, and advocated the establishment of a State Normal school. Nor were Mr. Brooks' labors confined to his own State: he extended his mission to New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. To few men do the American Normal schools owe so much as to Charles Brooks.

The Normal school idea had gained such headway in Massachusetts in 1838 that Mr. Edmund Dwight's1

1 Mr. Edmund Dwight, graduated at Yale College, was one of the merchant princes of Boston. He was destined for the bar, but took

generous offer to give the State $10,000 to promote the preparation of teachers for the common schools, provided the legislature would appropriate an equal amount for the same object, was immediately accepted by an almost unanimous vote of both houses. Governor Everett signed the resolution April 19, 1838 the anniversary of the battle of Lexington. But this was not the only suggestion of that battle that the history furnishes, as we shall soon see. The manner of using the money given by Mr. Dwight and voted by the legislature was committed wholly to the discretion of the Board of Education. Several questions of importance at once presented themselves. Should the Board concentrate its efforts upon a single central Normal school? Should it establish two or more schools? Should it do what had been done in New York, support normal instruction, or normal departments in different academies of the State? There were arguments pro and con on all of these plans of proceeding. To the single school it could be objected that it would be hidden away from the sight of a majority of the people of the State; while the New York plan was

rather to business. He was a man of broad ideas and great generosity, and became deeply interested in the common schools. After reading Mrs. Austin's translation of M. Victor Cousin's Report on the Schools of Prussia, to promote education became a leading object of his life. His house in Boston was a centre for meetings and consultations relating to the subject, and for many years hardly an important step was taken relating to it without his advice. He secured Mr. Mann's election to the Secretaryship, as already related. In all his contributions for enlarging and improving the State system of common schools were not less than $35,000. Memoir of Edmund Dwight, by Frances Bowen. - BARNARD, The American Journal of Education, Vol. IV., pp. 5-22.