ILLUSTRATION.

Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case.

EXPLANATION.-The writer starts out with the noun 'substantives,' which is so placed that it can be only the subject of a verb; but, before he gets through, the word another comes in as the subject of his verb must be. The word of at the beginning of the sentence-'Of two substantives,' etc. -would rectify the blunder.

The Possessive Case.

226. The only points of difficulty in the Syntax of Nouns occur in the use of the Possessive Case. Note the following illustrative sentences:

1. I have read a play of Shakspeare's, the great English dramatist.

EXPLANATION.-The rule in such cases is, that when nouns stand in apposition (as ‘dramatist' and 'Shakspeare'), the possessive 's is used with only one.

2. John, William, and Mary's share was five thousand dollars.

EXPLANATION.-The rule in such cases is, that when, in a string of nouns, joint possession is meant, the possessive 's is used only with the last.

3. A portrait of my father.

A portrait of my father's.

EXPLANATION.-Observe the distinction between these two expressions.

A portrait of my father means a likeness of himself.

This lat

A portrait of my father's means one portrait of my father's collection of portraits. ter employment of the possessive case is called its partitive use. The thing spoken of in the singular number is always understood in the plural number after the possessive. 'A house of my uncle's'=a house out of my uncle's houses.

4. Day and night are a consequence of the earth's revolving on its axis.

EXPLANATION.-This sentence illustrates a striking peculiarity of English syntax, and one that has greatly puzzled grammarians, namely, the possessive case associated with a participial form. The explanation is that in all such cases the verbal in -ing is a real Infinitive (see ¶ 171). As an infinitive, it has the function of a noun, and, as such, may be preceded by a possessive case describing it. Thus the earth's revolving' is equivalent to the earth's revolution.' The test of the noun character of a participle is to see if we can substitute a possessive pronoun for the possessive noun. Thus we can substitute its revolving for the earth's revolving.'

*** The verbal in -ing, which, as an infinitive, has thus the use of a noun, retains at the same time its governing power as a verb, and hence it may take an object after it; as, 'disease or death were consequences of the man's [possessive] neglecting treatment' [object].

Wrong Placing of Possessive Phrases.

227. The following illustrates a common error in the placing of possessive phrases:

The death was announced lately of the great statesman. EXPLANATION.-The possessive phrase ' of the great statesman' belongs to death: the phrase should be near the noun it describes; thus, "The death of the great statesman was,' etc. Never put a possessive phrase in the predicate when the noun to which it belongs is in the subject.

Possessive Inflection when used.

228. The Possessive Inflection is used only when some idea of ownership is present, and hence is limited mainly to persons and to personified objects. When we wish to denote merely an adjunct or accompaniment of a noun, we use the phrase-form with the preposition of. Thus we may say 'The man's occupation,' 'Time's hoary locks,'' the President's message,' 'death's fatal arrow,' but not the house's roof' (the roof of the house), 'the street's width' (the width of the street).

Possessive Phraseology how varied.

229. Whenever the possessive phraseology is felt to be awkward, we may avoid it by using the preposition of or by. Thus, instead of saying Alexander the Great's conquest of Babylon, we may say The conquest of Babylon by Alexander the Great.

230. Vary the expression of this sentence: This opinion is Newton the astronomer's.

Ellipsis of the described Noun.

231. Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the noun described by the possessive. EXAMPLE:-Whose is this image and superscription? They say unto him, Caesar's [image and superscription].

The Verbal in -ing.

232. When a verbal in -ing is preceded by the definite article, or by the Demonstrative this or that, it must be followed by the preposition of. But if there is no the, there must be no of.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

1. The rising of the sun was splendid.

2. Receiving this news gave us much pleasure.

EXPLANATION.-In the former case the verbal in -ing is a true noun; in the latter it is an infinitive. Such phrases as the following are needless and ungraceful, and truly un-English: "The betraying of a trust;' 'The receiving of a letter.' These verbals are not wanted, because we have the true nouns betrayal, receipt, etc.

3. Prompted by the most extreme vanity, he persisted in the writing bad verses.

EXPLANATION.-The use of the, if correct, would require writing to be followed by of the writing of bad verses.' But the is not correctly used. Writing is here a real infinitive, and an infinitive, being an abstract noun, can take no article; hence the sentence should be 'in writing bad verses.' 233. Correct the following: 1. Much depends on this rule being observed. 2. The building the house is going on. 3. Syntax of the Pronoun.

I. How To DISPOSE OF PRONOUNS.

234. The Pronoun has the same functions as the Noun; that is, it may be

1. Subject of a Verb.

2. Nominative after a Neuter or Passive Verb.

3. Object of a Transitive Verb.

4. Governed by a Preposition.

5. In the Possessive Case.

6. In Apposition.

7. Independent.

235. The Pronoun, having the same use as the Noun, is parsed in the same way as the Noun.

Review How to Dispose of a Noun, ¶ 215.

II. PRACTICAL SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN.

236. GENERAL RULE.- Pronouns should agree in Gender and in Number with their antecedents, or with the Nouns or the Pronouns that they represent.

"The

NOTE. This is the most important practical principle in the Syntax of Pronouns. It is also the one that is most frequently violated. greatest care ought always to be taken in using Pronouns, because, being small words, and in frequent use, the proper weight of them is very often unattended to."-Cobbett's English Grammar,

ILLUSTRATIONS.

1. Had the opinion of my censurers been unanimous, it might have overset my resolutions; but since I find them at variance with each other, I can, without scruple, neglect them [it], and follow my own imagination. Dr. Johnson.

EXPLANATION.-Notice the pronoun them, and see if you can tell what noun it is meant to represent. A careful reading of the sentence will show that the pronoun them was designed to stand for the word 'opinion.' It is the opinion that was not unanimous: hence the writer correctly says 'it [i. e., the opinion] might have overset my resolutions.' It was this 'opinion' that he could neglect, not his 'censurers,' which he carelessly makes the represented noun, and hence uses them' instead of 'it.'

2. When a verb governs a relative pronoun, it is placed after it.-Chambers's Grammar.

EXPLANATION. This sentence illustrates a careless use of the pronoun. It is not easy to tell which it represents 'verb' and which 'pronoun.' 3. Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others, and think that their reputation obscures them, and that their commendable qualities do stand in their light; and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over them, tha the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure 'hem.-Bishop Tillot

son.

EXPLANATION.-The above sentence has two subjects, and we can not tell from the construction to which of the two the pronouns refer. In fact, the sentence is a complete muddle of pronouns.

The Rule as applied to Nouns connected by 'and.'

237. When two or more Nouns are connected by 'and,' the Personal Pronoun used to represent them must be in the Plural Number.

ILLUSTRATION.

He was fonder of nothing than of wit and raillery, but he was far from being happy in it.-Dr. Blair.

EXPLANATION.-As in this sentence the pronoun it was designed to represent the two nouns 'wit' and 'raillery,' them should have been used instead of it.

238. Correct the following: Both Cato and Cicero loved his country.

Nouns connected by 'or.'

239. When two or more Singular Nouns or Pronouns are connected by 'or,' the pronoun used to represent them must be in the singular number.

ILLUSTRATION.

When he shoots a partridge, a woodcock, or a pheasant, he gives them away.

EXPLANATION.-As the represented nouns are singular and connected it should be used in place of them.

by or,

240. Correct the following: Man is not such a machine as a watch or a clock, which move merely as they are moved.

Collective Nouns.

241. Collective Nouns require singular or plural Pronouns according to whether they convey the idea of unity or of plurality.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

1. The clergy began to withdraw themselves. -Black

stone.

2. The populace, unfortunately for their own comfort, etc.

242. Correct the following: 1. The multitude, with all its means of instruction. 2. The army dragged themselves along through the mud.

Each, Every, Either, One, None, Etc.

243. Very frequent violations of the general rule occur when Pronouns are used to represent the words each, every, either, one, or nouns preceded by one of these words. RULE: These words have all a singular meaning, and must be represented by singular Pronouns.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

1. Franklin and Lawrence were distinguished patriots: each served their country well.

EXPLANATION.-In this sentence the pronoun 'their' is used to represent the pronoun 'each;' but 'each' has a singular meaning, and hence should be represented by a singular pronoun-'each served his country well.'

2. Every person is the architect of their own fortune.

EXPLANATION.-Here the pronoun 'their' is used to represent the singular noun 'person,' and hence should be singular-'the architect of his own fortune. What causes the mistake is the notion of plurality in the word 'every;' but recollect that 'every' is grammatically singular.

3. John and James have been late for a week: if either are absent from their seat at nine to-morrow they will be kept in.

EXPLANATION.-Here the pronouns 'their' and' they' are used to represent 'either,' which is singular; hence singular pronouns and the singular verb should be used. If either is absent from his seat, he will,' etc.