AMERICAN SOLDIERS CAPTURED BY THE GERMANS This photograph has been.reproduced from a German magazine and shows some of the first American soldiers taken prisoner being cross-examined by German officers. (British Official Photograph from Underwood & Underwood.) point, and no real tactical result followed the first attack. In May began a great effort of the Italians to follow up their victory of 1916 at Gorizia, and to win Trieste and the Trentino. Their armies made advances over the Isonzo and into the Carso, with offensives on the Asiago Plateau, which aroused great popular enthusiasm in Italy for "Nostra Guerra " to win "Italia Irredenta." Disintegration in Russia In the meantime, things had gone very badly in Russia. It is no exaggeration to say that the Russian armies were for four months a debating society, imposing rules and restrictions on orders for duty. In Petrograd there was still a semblance of an orderly Government, with the revolutionist Kerensky at its head. This man undoubtedly had great personal influence, and early in July he went out to the Russian armies, and inspired them to make a feverish offensive in Galicia. Helped by the surprise at such an unexpected attack, and probably also by withdrawals of Teutonic troops to other fronts, the Russians made great gains for awhile, including the capture of Halicz. But when Austro-German reinforcements were brought up against them, the Russian soldiers again became demoralized, and many of them refused to fight, marching away in Galicia without firing a shot. Since this time the Russian armies have been negligible as a factor in the military situation. As in the French Revolution, only in much less time, the first orderly attempts at government in Russia were swept aside, and the extremists gained control. This ascendency of the Russian Reds, or Bolsheviki, completed the demoralization of the Russian armies from a military point of view. All ranks and authorities were abolished, and no such thing as discipline existed any longer. Ruthless Submarine Warfare On the sea Germany had cast away all respect for international law, and on Feb. 1, 1917, a campaign of unrestricted U-boat warfare was begun against enemies and neutrals alike. This had been carefully planned, and from the first of the lawless undertaking the submarines proved themselves the most dangerous commerce destroyers in all history. The methods which had been used against them in narrow waters by the allied navies, and too hastily assumed to be sufficient, were found of little value in checking the activities of the submarines on the high seas. Sinkings were recorded on a scale that threatened a great decrease of the merchant tonnage of the world, and it became evident that the U-boat was the most dangerous weapon possessed by the Teutonic Allies. To stop their ravages became the greatest task of the Entente Allies. Yet this successful use of the U-boats, in defiance of the laws of humanity, soon became a boomerang, because it forced the United States to break off relations with Germany. The most hardened German advocates of ruthless submarine warfare cannot claim that anything has been accomplished by the U-boats sufficient to offset making an enemy of the United States. Soon after this enforced break the German Government was convicted, by the Zimmermann note, of deliberately plotting to disrupt the territory of the United States. This last outrageous act of the German Government united all Americans in the declaration of war against Germany which followed, (April 6, 1917.) Our Position in the War The position of the United States is perfectly clear. We had nothing to do with making the conditions which brought on the war. We had committed no hostile act, but had preserved a strict neutrality, and we had attempted to bring about peace between the warring groups. After long patience our nation has been driven into the war by the repeated hostile acts of the German Government, not only by brutal defiance of humanity on the seas, but by proved attempts to incite Mexico and Japan to war with us and take away our territory. Our aims have been so plainly stated that there is no question of selfish gain or conquest. For our entrance into the war the German people must hold the German Government responsible. Our first act in the war was to send the help of our navy to the campaign against the illegal submarine warfare, which had been the original cause of our entering the war. The services rendered by Admiral Sims and the American destroyers (in European waters May, 1917) were promptly recognized. A new stimulus was given to the defense against the submarines, and this was much needed. In response to the urgent appeals of the special mission of the Entente Allies, American troops were sent to France in June, and there followed a steady stream of transports throughout the rest of the year. This dangerous transfer of troops has been wonderfully well handled by the United States Navy. The Battle of Flanders As the seriousness of the submarine danger developed, the value of the Belgian coast to the Germans became evident. Early in the war, in the exultation at keeping the Germans from Calais, the strategic value of this strip of coast as a base had not been realized. But, by the middle of 1917, Zeebrugge began to assume large proportions as a tactical objective. The scene of the allied offensive French was transferred to Flanders. troops were sent to this sector to reinforce the British, and on July 31 a new offensive was started on a twenty-mile front from Dixmude to Warneton. This has been called the battle of Flanders, and here some of the most desperate fighting of the year took place. Ever since the advance along the Belgian coast, in 1914, the Germans have held fast to the position where their line stretches to the sea on the Yser, north of Nieuport. In fact, the only change in this region in 1917 was a German surprise attack, (July 10,) unsuspected by the British aircraft. By keeping their gain the Germans improved their position at this point. In August the great offensive of the British and French in Flanders won only local successes. Their attacks did not endanger the German positions suf ficiently to cause a retreat on the coast, and further south the Germans were able to hold Lens against all attacks. By the first week in September there was a lull in the battle of Flanders. Italians in the Julian Alps On the Italian front there had been much activity in the Summer of 1917, and on Aug. 18 began.the "great Italian offensive in the Julian Alps. Here early Italian successes were thought by the Italian people to be the precursors of great victories, and the ambition of the nation leaped toward renewed empire on the Mediterranean. On the Russian front, throughout the Summer of 1917, the Germans had been chary of provoking hostilities on the southeastern front, but in the north they took advantage of the military and naval weakness of the Russians, easily capturing Riga, (Sept. 2, 1917,) and afterward Dagö Island and Oesel Island at the entrance of the Gulf of Riga, (October, 1917.) Occupying these points of strategic importance increased the German domination of the Baltic Sea. There had been a lull in the battle of Flanders, but from Sept. 20 the Allies made repeated assaults beyond Ypres. As before, there were local gains. Langemarck, the Ypres-Menin road, &c., are familiar names. But the battle deteriorated into floundering through seas of mud, and the command of the Passchendaele "ridge" is the only strategic result that can be claimed. The Invasion of Italy On the Italian front the dreams of Italian conquests were suddenly destroyed by a Hindenburg drive, which was as much of a surprise as those earlier in the war. As in 1916, the collapse of the Russian armies had permitted reinforcement of the Austrian armies, and these replenished forces were launched against the Italians, (Oct. 24, 1917,) in an assault that won back the conquests of two years and a half in as many weeks. Not only were all the Italian gains swept away, but the drive continued far into Venetia. The first reports of these overwhelming Italian defeats implied demoraliza tion of the Italian armies by German propaganda. But the real situation was stated in l'Homme Libre, the French Premier Clemenceau's paper, (Nov. 23, 1917,) with the evident intention of giving the truth to the Frenen people. Under the circumstances, this article may be accepted as practically official. It described a faulty disposition of Cadorna's armies,* one facing north, the other facing east, with a gap between in the region of Tolmino. Against this undefended sector was directed the massed assault of the Austro-German armies. The consequent rout of both Italian armies is thus explained. There had been no preparation of positions for defense by the overconfident Cadorna, and the disastrous retreat continued across the Tagliamento, with constantly increasing losses in men and guns, to the Piave, where a stand was at last made. The awful toll of losses in this short campaign (Oct. 24-Nov. 15) rose to 250,000 prisoners and over 2,000 guns. It is interesting to note that, in this Italian defeat, there was another case of a surprise concentration of great bodies of troops and artillery undetected by the airplane scouts, though the Italian air service is known to be one of the best. Unity of Military Control In this extremity Italy appealed for help to Great Britain and France, and both nations responded, after an agreement for “unity of control" had been reached. This agreement made Italy for the first time really one of the Entente Allies, and the operations of the British, French, and Italian Armies were coordinated. It is now known that the strength of the Austro-German Army was much exaggerated in the first reports. It is doubtful if there ever was any great numerical superiority over the Italian armies. Evidently, after the stand of the Italians, with their right on the Piave and their left in the northern mountains, it was necessary for the Teutons to bring up reinforcements and also their heavy guns, which had been unable to keep up with the rapid advance. Here the season * "Nostra Guerra," CURRENT HISTORY MAGAZINE, January, 1918. of the year became a great factor. Unusually mild conditions allowed the Austrians to increase their pressure on the Italians in the mountainous regions, and they won many Italian positions and took a toll of prisoners (17,000) in the first half of December. Then severe cold and heavy snows were reported, and the situation changed to the advantage of the Italian defense. British Attach at Cambrai In November the battle of Flanders had waned into raiding tactics, but the British had been preparing for a new offensive against the German positions near Cambrai. The plan of assault was novel and ingenious. Taking advantage of darkness and misty weather, a large number of tanks had been aligned for attack, unsuspected by the Germans. Artificial smoke had been added to the concealment of the mist, and in the early dawn of Nov. 20, without any warning from artillery preparation, the sudden British attack, with these tanks to break down entanglements for the infantry, scored a complete surprise and won German positions for a depth of five miles. Unfortunately, there had been no provision for a strong mobile force to follow up any such success, and the result of the attack was to throw out a salient some twelve miles wide and five miles deep into the German positions. Of course, this salient was very vulnerable, and the question of just what terrain to hold should have been carefully considered. Instead of this, the British attempted to consolidate all their gains. They allowed themselves to be occupied by the attacks in the direction of Inchy and Bourlon, and the Germans in turn were enabled to make a surprise attack on the southern flank of the salient near Gonzeaucourt, (Nov. 30-Dec. 1.) Here the German troops even penetrated to places where construction was going on behind the lines in fancied security. It was at this point that American engineers, so occupied, were involved in the fighting. As a result of this counterattack, and because of artillery concentrations on the exposed portions of the salient, |