tractors. Instead of supporting Iachos, human pursuit; but that virtuous mohe placed his competitor Nectanebis on the throne, having, in the true spirit of a Spartan, taken the stronger side. His death occurred on his voyage home from this expedition. His pleasant caution to a courtier, who caught him riding upon a stick to amuse his children, has been often quoted: "Tell no one what you have seen,' said he, until you are yourself a father.' tives and actions were essential to pleasure. The contradiction involved in this definition is evident enough; and substituting, as the theory does, pleasurable enjoyment for moral restraint, as the foundation of happiness, it was easily overturned by every man of the world brought to ruin by having followed its dictates. Antisthenes, founder of the Cynics, Archytas, of Tarentum, a Pytha- was born at Athens, and having atgorean philosopher, and general of tended the lectures of Socrates, enthe Tarentines, was Plato's in-larged upon those which treated of structor in geometry, and one of the temperance. He went about the streets first who applied the theory of mathematics to practical purposes. Many marvellous stories are related of his skill in mechanics; such as his constructing a pigeon which could fly, &c. Aristippus, founder of the Cyrenaic sect, studied under Socrates; but the rules of that great moralist were too strict for him. Opening a school at Cyrene, in Africa, he declared that pleasure was the ultimate object of attired in a threadbare coat, permitted his beard to grow, and made but one meal in the day. His maxims were that to be virtuous was to be happy, and that all virtue consisted in action. One of his pupils having asked him what philosophy had taught him, he replied, "To live happily by myself." The Cynics were so called from kunos, a dog, because of their churlish habits. SECTION IX. OCHUS, KING OF PERSIA. 358 TO 338-20 YEARS. Ochus, son of the last king, having put to death eighty of his relatives, considered himself firmly seated on the throne. He had to contend with various tributary states, which he with difficulty reduced, especially Phoenicia, where 40,000 persons burned themselves in Sidon alone, to avoid falling into his hands. With 10,000 Greek mercenaries he marched against Egypt, and in his way thither met with a remarkable loss of men in lake Serbonis, in Syria, which, when the south wind prevails, is covered with sand, so as not to be distinguishable from the land. Ochus, from the want of guides, saw troop after troop sink beneath the deceptive covering, without the possibility of affording them aid; nevertheless he effected the conquest of Egypt, dethroning Nectane bis 11., and returning to Babylon laden with spoil. His treatment, however, of the god Apis excited so much indignation in the mind of his eunuch, Bagoas, an Egyptian, that he murdered him, and placed the king's son, Arses, on the throne. EVENTS. Second Sacred War. The Phocians, who were guardians of the temple of Delphi, having been fined by the Amphictyons, for ploughing a piece of ground sacred to Apollo, refused to pay the required sum; and when the Thebans entered their state to compel them, 358, they seized the treasures of HISTORY.] RISE TO FALL OF PERSIAN EMPIRE. 538-331 B. C. the god to raise troops. For many years the Thebans and their allies assailed them in vain; but at last Philip of Macedon defeated them at Magnesia, and made them tributary, 348. Dionysius the Expulsion of Younger. He had succeeded his father, the elder Dionysius, as king of Syracuse, and by the advice of Dion, his brother-in-law, had invited Plato to his court. When that philosopher suggested that he would benefit his country by resigning the sovereign authority, he imprisoned him, and banished Dion; but the latter collected forces in Greece, and expelled Dion was soon after the tyrant, 357. assassinated, and in ten years Dionysius recovered his throne, but was again driven out by Timoleon, at the head of the Corinthian army, 343, and compelled to open a school for his support at Corinth, where he died on the day that his tragedy gained the prize at the Olympic games. Destruction of Diana's Temple at' Ephesus. Eratostratus, an Ephesian, Battle of Charonea. Philip of Ma- EMINENT PERSONS. Philip, King of Macedon, had been brought up as a hostage amongst the Thebans, whence he obtained his When called to knowledge of war. the throne, until the minority of his nephew had expired, he declared himself independent, and seized various petty colonies of Athens and Thrace. When his son Alexander required a tutor, conscious of the inestimable advantages which result from the lessons, the example, and the conversation, of a learned and virtuous preceptor, he induced the philosopher Aristotle to dedicate his whole time to the inResolved struction of the prince. upon the subjugation of Greece, he laid siege to Olynthus, which the Athenians defended as the key of their territory. Demosthenes called on his countrymen to scorn the proffered bribes of Philip; but gold prevailed, and Olynthus surrendered. The conqueror proceeded from victory to victory, until the fight of Charonea sealed the fate of integral Greece; and he was on the point of marching against Persia, when Pausanias, one of his own officers, stabbed him in the public theatre, 336. Aristotle, the son of a Thracian physician, became the pupil of Plato, who used to call him the mind of his school. When Philip invited him to undertake the education of the heir to his throne, he fulfilled the duty in such a manner as to acquire the friendship of both father and son; and so lively was the gratitude of Philip, that he rebuilt the philosopher's native town Stagyra, which he had dismantled, and restored the inhabitants to their former privileges. He opened his school in the Lyceum of Athens, 355, and founded his philosophical sect; and as he usually walked while he lectured, his followers were called peripatetics (walkers about), and his doctrine the peripatetic philosophy. Having taught for thirteen years with great popularity, E 2 Eurymedon, a priest, accused him of, pebbles in his mouth, he would at impiety; whereon he retired to Chal-length clearly enunciate; on the seacis, and died there in the same year shore, while the waves were roaring, that his illustrious pupil expired. Of he would render himself audible; and the vast extent of Aristotle's intellect the first use he made of his oratory, his writings remain an indisputable was to force his stolen patrimony testimony. His treatise on rhetoric from his guardians. His orations are forms the basis of all that has been said to have been written in a cave since written on the subject of elo- remote from society: that they failed quence by Quintilian and Cicero. On in saving his country was the sin of poetry, he furnishes a correct analysis the Athenians, who had too deeply of the constituent parts of the drama sunk in the lap of luxury to be easily and the epic; the excellence of which extricated. It was not until after the consists in the scholastic precision with death of Alexander, that, just recalled which the subject is handled. On from banishment, Demosthenes was politics, his opinions still possess a denounced by Antipater, now master general value. The leading doctrine of Macedonia; to avoid whose ire he of his ethics is, that virtue consists in poisoned himself with a liquid he caran avoidance of two extremes, the one ried in a quill. Demosthenes was of which is vicious through excess, the accustomed to rouse the slumbering other through defect. His morality is affections of his countrymen by a less fanciful than that of Plato, and species of exaggeration common to his less pure than that of Socrates; receiv-nation; and his speeches against the ing perhaps its worldly tincture from bribery of Philip have obtained the his residence at the court of Philip. appellation of philippics, a term now Of logic, Aristotle may be called the commonly used to denote harangues of inventor, especially of the art of syllo- a severe and sarcastic tone. gistic reasoning. He is first in the class of inquirers who, previous to the inductive philosophy, sought, by an exertion of pure intellect, to elicit results to which mind alone, without experiment, can never be adequate. The solidity of his labours as compared with those of his predecessors is remarkably conspicuous; and it was no small compliment to his memory, when the religious diputants of the middle ages used his dialectics as common weapons of defence, and established an intimate union between the principles of the peripatetic philosophy and those of Christianity. Demosthenes, the most illustrious orator of Greece, was son of a rich blacksmith of Athens, and pupil of Plato. Through the ill-care of his guardians, he lost his property; whereupon he turned his mind to forensic eloquence, and overcame, by extraordinary perseverance, the most obstixate natural defects of utterance. With Eschines, the Athenian orator, three of whose speeches are extant, impeached Ctesiphon, when he proposed to the Athenians to reward Demosthenes for his patriotic labours with a golden crown; but was defeated by his rival's superior eloquence, and banished to Rhodes. As he retired, Demosthenes ran after him, and nobly forced him to accept a present of money. Isocrates, also an orator of Athens, long kept Philip from his designs upon the state; but when that monarch was successful at Charonea, he starved himself to death. The remains of his orations inspire us with high veneration for both his morals and eloquence. Manlius Torquatus, the Roman dictator, celebrated for his stern love of justice. His son having gained a victory without the usual permission to engage the enemy, the rigorous father put him to death. SECTION X. (ARSES, KING OF PERSIA.; 338 TO 335-3 YEARS. Arses. Bagoas had not long raised Arses to the throne, when he found him disposed, like his father, to ridicule the Egyptian idolatry, and to carry forces into Egypt to prevent a restoration of the same worship. He thereupon strangled him and placed Darius, a relation of the family, in his stead. EMINENT PERSONS.] Phocion, the pupil of Plato, was an eminent ruler of Athens. Though he had opposed Demosthenes when he incited the people against Philip, he resisted every attempt of that monarch to bribe him. Alexander and Antipater, the successors of Philip, found him in like manner incorruptible. He was anxious for peace; and declared that the orators had brought ruin upon their country, by their fiery harangues. In the contest between Cassander and Polysperchon, Phocion, having sided with the unsuccessful party (Cassander), was compelled by the fickle Athenians to drink hemlock, at the advanced age of eighty-two. Theophrastus, the pupil of both Plato and Aristotle, succeeded the latter in the Lyceum of Athens. His lectures were attended by Cassander and Ptolemy, and kings and princes courted his friendship. He lived to the age of 107. His characters, a series of excellent ethic portraits, is the most popular of his extant works. SECTION XI. DARIUS III. (CODOMANUS), KING OF PERSIA. 335 TO 331-4 YEARS. Darius III. When Bagoas found Darius (or Darab) as little subservient as Arses had been, he attempted to poison him; but the king compelled the eunuch to drink the fatal potion_himself. When Alexander invaded Persia, Darius met him at the head of 600,000 men, near the Granicus. But his army was more remarkable for luxury, than for the courage of its soldiers: 277 cooks, 116 cupbearears and waiters, forty servants to perfume the king, and sixty-six to deck the dining-tables with flowers, give us but a poor idea of the hardy warrior. Alexander routed this vast force with ease; and soon after defeated his enemy again at Issus, and took his mother, wife, and children, prisoners. The darkness of the night favoured the retreat of Darius; and he met Alexander for the last time at Arbela, 331. The victory was long and doubtful, but at length the Macedonians prevailed; and Darius, having been murdered in his chariot as he fled, by Bessus, one of his officers, was found by a Macedonian, covered with wounds, and expiring. He asked for water, and begged the soldier who brought it to give Alexander his thanks for the tenderness with which he heard he had treated his captive family. The conqueror coming up soon after, covered the body of the king with his own mantle, and gave it a magnificent burial, putting to an ignominious death the atrocious Bessus. Thus was the Persian empire supplanted, 207 years from its foundation, by the Grecian. EVENTS. Alexandria founded by Alexander, collect what meal was amongst the soldiers, and to sift it in lines. The advice was followed; and the new method was interpreted by Alexander as a presage of the city's abounding with the necessaries of life; a prediction afterwards verified by the place becoming, not only the staple of merchandise, but the grand nursery of the arts and sciences of Greece. 332, as the capital of his dominions. So suddenly was the design executed, that when the hero had directed where each public edifice should stand, fixed the number of temples, and the deities to whom they should be dedicated, it was found that no instruments were at hand wherewith to mark out the walls. Upon this, a workman proposed to EMINENT PERSONS, ference of practical to theoretical wisdom. Deeming purity of mind and strength of body acquirable by habit, he derived virtue from discipline; and regarded a conquest over passions and desires as the grand object of philosophy. Alexander, in speaking of him, used to say, 'Were I not Alexander, I should wish to be Diogenes.' and Diogenes, having been exiled from | after death; and though Plato called Sinope for coining false-money, came him, the mad Socrates,' there was to Athens, and studied under Antis- something sane in the Cynic's prethenes, the Cynic. In illustration of his principles, he went about clad in coarse apparel, and carrying a tub on his head, in which he slept at night. He proved to Alexander, that a man possessing nothing might feel equal independence of mind with him who had all earthly things at command; for that hero, visiting him one day, asked him if he could render him any service? To which Diogenes replied, 'Yes, by getting out of my sunshine.' He had a column of Parian marble erected by his disciples to his memory Hyperides, the Athenian orator, disciple of Plato. When taken prisoner at the battle of Cranon, he cut out his tongue that he might not betray the secrets of his country to Antipater. SECTION XII. ALEXANDER THE GREAT, KING OF ALL GREECE, Including the monarchies of Assyria, Chaldea, Persia, and Macedon. 331 TO 323-8 YEARS. Alexander, the most renowned of ancient heroes, was ushered into the world while Diana's gorgeous temple at Ephesus was burning. Aristotle became his tutor; and the rhapsodies of Homer, and especially the character of Achilles, contributed much to produce his passion for military glory. He gave proofs of manly skill and courage while young; one of which was the breaking in of his fiery courser, Bucephalus, which had mastered every groom. He was nineteen when he came to the throne of Macedon, upon his father's murder; and his first act was to punish the assassin. His youth having incited the Thebans to put down the ascendancy of his state, he, by a sudden march into Thessaly, overawed the most active of his opponents; and when, on a report of his death, circulated by Demosthenes and his party, a general declaration of the Greeks against Macedon took place, he punished the revolt of Thebes with a severity which effectually prevented any imitation of its example. That unhappy city was razed to the ground, with the ostentatious exception of the |