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N February 11, 1921, after about two years of preparation, the National Institute of Industrial Psychology (Great Britain) was incorporated as an Association for Promoting Science. The title of the institute may not fully indicate the scope of its work. The word "industrial" is intended to include "commercial," and, indeed, every kind of occupational work. The word "psychology" is used to cover the study not only of the mental processes, but also of the relevant bodily activities involved in any vocation. Thus, industrial psychology is concerned with the entire field of human labor; it approaches the problem of industry from the human standpoint.

We may regard the nineteenth century as the age of mechanism in industrial history: it was the age of the invention and construction of machines, during which the worker had to adapt himself as best he could to the machine. The engineer had little consideration for, and, indeed, scant knowledge of the demands of, the human organism. Little was known about, and little attention was given to, such problems as the best position of the levers and treadles of a machine in regard to the limbs of the worker, the regulation of the height of working materials in relation to the worker's stature, the most effective movements, methods of selection and training of the worker, the most effective lengths of the work-spell or shift, etc.

To provide, to apply, to spread such knowledge, the National Institute was founded. Its work may be ranged under seven main heads:

(1) The determination of the best conditions of work in factories, offices, etc., especially in

regard to (i) the elimination of needless moveof periods of work and rest, (iii) the reduction of ments, (ii) the most advantageous distribution monotony, increase in interest, etc., (iv) the influence of lighting, temperature, humidity, seating, etc. (2) The formulation and introduction of systematized scientific methods for the training of the young worker in his vocation.

(3) The elaboration and application of suitable physiological and psychological tests, so as to secure (i) more efficient and scientific selection of lescents when choosing their occupation. workers, and (ii) more reliable guidance for ado

(4) The improvement in incentives to work and in relations between management and labor. the sale of products, e.g., advertisement, design(5) The study of the human factors influencing

ing.

(6) The provision of suitable lectures on the above subjects for employers, managers, foremen, and welfare-workers, and for workers generally. research work in the above-mentioned subjects (7) The encouragement and co-ordination of throughout the United Kingdom, and the publication of the facts established by research in a form which will indicate their practical value.

In accordance with the constitution of the institute, its entire income has to be applied in extending its activities—not in the payment of dividends to its members. From its initiation many firms and private individuals have offered it liberal financial support, and the trustees of the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust have annually made a generous grant from its funds which are used to assist undertakings having as their aim the well-being of the masses.

The institute arose out of a letter addressed to me in 1918 by Mr. H. J. Welch, a director of the well-known firm of Harrisons & Crosfield, Ltd. I was at that time engaged in the preparation of certain lectures to be delivered before the Royal Institution on "The Present-Day Applications of Modern Psychology," and had already begun to realize the future importance of industrial psychology. Little persuasion was therefore needed for me to

collaborate with Mr. Welch in the foundation of the institute. During its earliest days I endeavored to carry out my duties as director of the new institute in London and of the Psychological Laboratory in Cambridge simultaneously. But it became increasingly clear that such a division of work was impossible if the duties of either were to be performed satisfactorily. In view of the national importance of the institute's work, I decided in 1922 to resign my Cambridge appointments and to give myself up wholly to its objects.

From the first Mr. Welch acted as treasurer, and was later elected, also, to the chairmanship of the new institute. He was supported by representatives of various commercial and industrial firms:

Mr. E. R. Debenham (chairman of Debenham's, Ltd.), Sir Robert Hadfield, Bart., F.R.S. (chairman of Hadfield's, Ltd.), Mr. W. L. Hichens (chairman of Cammell Laird & Co., Ltd.), Mr. A. F. Lake (director of Whiteway, Laidlaw & Co., Ltd.), Mr. Kenneth Lee (chairman of Tootal Broadhurst Lee Co., Ltd.), Sir John Mann, K.B.E. (chairman of Mann, Judd, Gordon & Co., Ltd.), Mr. F. J. Marquis (director of Lewis's, Ltd.), Mr. L. E. Mather (director of Mather & Platt, Ltd.), Mr. B. Seebohm Rowntree (director of Rowntree & Co., Ltd.), H. Gordon Selfridge (chairman of Selfridge & Co., Ltd.).

All of them have joined the council and advisory board of the institute, several showing active interest in the institute by attendance at the monthly meetings of its executive committee.

The impartial scientific methods and objects of the institute were likewise appreciated from the side of labor. Conferences were held with representatives of the more important trade-unions, the Industrial Council for the Building Industry, the National Industrial Council of Painters and Decorators, etc.

Special interest was taken by labor in that part of the institute's work which aims at vocational guidance, and in the attitude adopted by the institute in regard to industrial efficiency. It was explained that the aim of the institute's investigations is not to "speed up" the worker, but to discover the most effective methods of work, eliminating needless movements and wasteful energy. The adoption of this attitude in actual practice has been found invariably to secure

the worker's confidence and to result in greater efficiency. Thus an investigation conducted by the institute into packing resulted not merely in an increase in output of over 35 per cent, but the packers at the same time expressed their gratitude spontaneously to the investigators, because they returned home so much less tired than before at the close of each working day. So, too, in an investigation in a coal-mine, the confidence of the miners was so fully won that they consented to be trained to the best rhythm of movement by wielding the pick to the beat of the metronome; and quite spontaneously they suggested the application of similar methods of training to other operations in the mining industry. Again, in an inquiry into breakages, the co-operation of the workers was so completely obtained that they freely gave the investigators valuable information as to how the broken articles came to be broken.

The interest of labor in the aims of the institute is also attested by the following names on its council: Mr. John Baker, assistant secretary of the Iron and Steel Trades Confederation; Mr. Arthur Greenwood, M.P., Labor party; Mr. D. T. John, of the Ministry of Labor; Mr. J. J. Mallon, warden of Toynbee Hall; Mr. Thomas Shaw, M.P., international secretary, Textile Workers' Association.

In actual practice, less difficulty has been experienced in allaying the suspicion of the worker than in persuading the employer that the investigations of the institute can only profit both himself and the worker. The employer is apt to raise the bogie of trouble with trade-unions; but no such trouble has yet been encountered. Or he will express a fear that his managers or foremen will resent the introduction of outside help. Or he will ridicule the notion that investigators, untrained in his industry, can give him any help. Perhaps he has already had experience of the numerous "efficiency engineers" or "experts in scientific management," to one of whom he may have paid a huge fee for a few days' inspection of his works, and from whom he has received merely a report of what is considered advisable, generally in terms of some complicated system of tasks to be set and bonuses to be paid.

It is not on these lines that the investigations undertaken by the institute are planned. One or more assistant investigators, trained in psychology and physiology, live the life of the worker, spending the first few weeks or months of the investigation by "soaking" themselves in the present working conditions. They are supervised by one of the senior investigators, who visits the factory or office as occasion demands. Careful note is taken of wasteful movements on the part of the worker, bad arrangements, and defective supplies of material, etc. Detailed records are taken of the output, hour by hour throughout the day. Improved methods are devised and tried, and their results are accurately ascertained. Throughout, the co-operation of the workers, foremen, and managers is sought and obtained.

For the successful practice of the institute's methods and object, it was clearly important from the very outset to obtain the best scientific support and advice available. A scientific committee was therefore formed, containing such experts in physiology as Professor Sir Charles Sherrington, G.B.E., and Mr. W. B. Hardy, respectively president and secretary of the Royal Society, and Professors A. V. Hill, Leonard Hill, E. H. Starling, Doctor Henry Head, and others; Professors Pear, Spearman, and others in psychology; and Professors Nunn, Thomson, Valentine, and others in education.

The next step was to engage suitable premises and staff. A suite of offices was taken at 329 High Holborn, W. C. 1, which was subsequently added to. The accommodation is still inadequate to meet the increasing work of the institute, and can only be regarded as provisional.

Doctor G. H. Miles succeeded Mr. G. Spiller as secretary to the institute, later becoming assistant director, and acting as senior investigator. As the work in creased, various assistant investigators were engaged, who had received a training in psychology and physiology, and the services of other senior investigators, e.g., Mr. E. Farmer, Mr. B. Muscio, and Miss May Smith, were obtained on loan from the Industrial Fatigue Research Board, now reconstituted to act in an advisory capacity to the Medical Research Council.

The Industrial Fatigue Research Board

differs from the National Institute in being supported mainly by contributions from the state, and in being concerned with the general problems of each industry, considered as a whole; whereas the institute is entirely dependent on voluntary support, and investigates more particularly the needs and conditions of individual firms or persons which, of course, a state-supported body is precluded from doing. But these differences are complementary, not opposed to one another. Indeed, no clear line of distinction can be even theoretically drawn between the work of the board and of the institute. Their close connection has been also realized in practice. Mr. D. R. Wilson, the secretary of the board, is a member of the executive committee of the institute; I am a member of the board, and many other members of the board and of its committees are also members of the executive and scientific committees of the institute. Quite recently a joint committee of the board and institute, comprising Sir Charles Sherrington, P.R.S., Mr. W. Graham, M.P., Mr. H. J. Welch, and Mr. Piercy, B.Sc., has been constituted to confer on matters jointly affecting the interests of the two bodies.

Inasmuch as every investigation carried out by the institute involves and implies research, it is impossible to relegate research wholly to the Industrial Fatigue Research Board. The profits of the first year's work of the institute were largely spent in research into vocational tests. Mr. Cyril Burt, M.A., has been engaged to superintend this new section of the institute's work; several research studentships have been awarded to postgraduate students, and voluntary research workers have also offered their assistance. Investigations on behalf of the institute are now being carried out on tests for the various branches of engineering work in polytechnics and works in London and Manchester, and on tests for different branches of dressmaking in London tradeschools. These investigations have recently been combined with others of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board on tests of motor abilities, so as to form a joint investigation under the direction of Mr. Burt.

This research work of the institute has

only been possible through the donations it has received and the remuneration it has earned from the work of its investigators in various firms. The results of these investigations, in so far as they are of general interest, are published in the quarterly Journal of the Institute, which is sent out to all who, by subscribing one pound or more annually, become members of the institute. The Journal contains other articles on industrial psychology, written in non-technical language, and reviews and abstracts of current literature and research work.

In addition to the investigations which the institute has so far undertaken for three different firms of chocolate-makers, special mention may be made of those conducted in a tin-can factory, in a wardrobe factory, in a margarine factory, in a catgut factory, in the coal, bakery, and textile industries, and in restaurantswhich suffice to indicate the scope of the demand that has arisen for its services. Some of the outstanding results of these investigations and other features of the institute's work are herewith described.

REST PAUSES

A rest pause of seven minutes was introduced daily at II A. M. and at 4 P. M., in a process consisting of light physical, semi-skilled, sitting work which demanded close attention, a high standard of workmanship, and a training period of about six months. Wages were paid on a time basis with a small group bonus on output; they were well above the tradeunion rates. During the rest periods the workers left their seats, washed, walked the length of the room, and stood chatting together. In the afternoon cups of tea were served. Five workers, of superior, average, and poor ability, acted as the subjects of the experiment. Their output was checked half-hourly for a week before the rest pauses were introduced, and for a fortnight afterwards. The daily output during the former period averaged 83.44 units, and during the latter period 88 units. That is to say, a gain of 5.47 per cent in output was obtained through the introduction of rest pauses, despite nearly a 3 per cent reduction in the number of hours worked, owing to the fourteen minutes spent in rest. All five work

ers testified to their great enjoyment of the relief afforded by the rest pauses. They believed that such breaks stimulated them to better output up to the end of the spell. The curves of the halfhourly records of their output confirm this belief. Those obtained after the rest pauses had been introduced are not only at higher level, but they are of a better shape.

CHANGE PAUSES

In this experiment an increase of over 14 per cent in output was obtained by the introduction of a fifteen minutes' interval in the morning and the afternoon. The workers, who were engaged (in another factory) in the same work as that referred to in the previous paragraph, spent the interval mainly in a change of work, namely, in collecting materials, a task which had been previously carried out partly during the first few minutes of each morning's work, and had been partly distributed irregularly throughout the remainder of the day. The output curve showed an enormous improvement in form as well as in height. The workers were unanimous in their approval of the change.

SPOILT WORK

An investigation was conducted into the breakage of china and glass in a large London catering firm. One shop was first examined, and there resulted a reduction in breakages amounting to over 53 per cent on the average (and to over 70 per cent in the case of one article), by introducing changes in method and organization which alleviated fatigue, irritation, and worry on the part of the workers. The workers themselves bore testimony to the greater smoothness and ease of their work after the changes had been carried out. The firm subsequently remodelled all their new shops on the lines recommended by the institute's investigators. Ampler provision for the “rush periods" was made; indicators were installed to facilitate intercommunication between different departments, the workers were screened from undue heat, the benches were altered in type and height, the tables and carriers were improved, guards and other forms of protection were

introduced. The curve of fluctuations in breakages recorded every two hours throughout the day was not only at a lower level, but was of a better shape. Thus, between 10 A. M. and noon, a reduction of 20 per cent was obtained; between noon and 2 P. M. it fell to 44 per cent; between 2 and 4 P. M. the reduction was 34 per cent; while between 4 and 6 P. M. it amounted to 72 per cent. The increasing reduction in breakage frequency toward the end of the day may be ascribed to the very considerable reduction of fatigue effected. The whole investigation resolved itself into (a) lessening the number of danger points, thus diminishing needless effort and attention, and (b) removing numerous causes of petty irritation and annoyance.

TRAINING OF THE WORKER

The wide individual differences in the efficiency of packers is attributable in large measure to a lack of systematic instruction in method, which prevents the less intelligent workers from fully developing their latent powers. Accordingly, after careful observation and consideration, the best methods of packing were determined which were calculated to reduce to a minimum the range and the number of the worker's movements, and to encourage the use of both hands in a rhythmical easy fashion. Instruction cards were drawn up, and a suitable packer, highly skilled, was chosen as instructor.

Five inefficient packers (by no means the slowest) were first selected, to receive a three weeks' course of such instruction. Their efficiency improved by nearly 27 per cent. The same training was later applied to twelve novices who were rather below than above the standard of the girls usually engaged for packing. A week after their systematic training had begun, a large number of new girls were drafted into the packing-room, who were taught in the less satisfactory methods then in vogue in the factory. The output of the best five of these packers during their fifth week of working was compared with the output of the best five of the twelve girls during the fourth week of their training in accordance with the methods of the institute's investigators. It was proved to be 21 per cent less. The

detailed time study carried out on each individual worker in the separate processes of packing enabled the investigators immediately to detect the mistaken methods which a new or inefficient packer might be making. The investigators recommended the future employment of an expert who should slowly demonstrate his methods and also of a teacher who could both explain what is being done and indicate the reasons for each movement and its value. They found that an expert often does not realize the precise movements he makes, and so cannot explain them, and that he tends to find fault with the novices' work rather than to teach them correct methods.

So, too, by the use of systematic methods of training in chocolate dipping, the period previously required for a learner to earn the average piece rates was halved. An expert in fork-dipping and a chargehand in fondant-dipping under similar training increased their output by about 13 and 28 per cent respectively.

MOVEMENT STUDY

In a wardrobe factory, the constant interruption, owing to the resetting of machines, which were needed to meet the frequent changes of work was shown to affect the mental condition of the workers. The repeated changing from one task to another lessened their interest and caused irritation, reacting on the quantity and quality of the work produced. Moreover, careful training by the institute's investigators demonstrated that less than 40 per cent of the machinist's total time was spent on productive labor, the remainder being required for readjusting and resetting the machines, fetching materials, etc. The investigators concluded that a total increase in efficiency, amounting possibly to 50 per cent, would follow the complete separation of the wardrobe-making from the joinery department. Upon the basis of this report the firm decided to reconstruct the works entirely. In the polishers' department a new arrangement was devised by the investigators for supporting the material to be polished, dispensing with the use of nailed supports, which took several minutes to fix and release, and sometimes caused scratches requiring several hours