member the comparative freshness and vigor of mind and body with which the morning's study and recitations were begun, and the languor and weariness of body, the confusion of mind, the dry skin, the flushed cheek, the aching head, the sickening sensations, the unnatural demand for drink, the thousand excuses to get out of doors, which came along in succession as the day advanced, and especially in a winter's afternoon, when the overheated and unrenewed atmosphere had become obvious to every sense? These were nature's signals of distress, and who can forget the delicious sensations with which her balmy breath, when admitted on the occasional opening of the door, would visit the brow and face, and be felt all along the revitalized blood, or the newness of life with which nerve, muscle, and mind were endued by free exercise in the open air at the recess, and the close of the school? Let any one who is sceptical on this point visit the school of his own section, where his own children perhaps are condemned to a shorter allowance of pure air than the criminals of the State, and he cannot fail to see in the pale and wearied countenances of the pupils, the langour and uneasiness manifested, especiall be the younger children, and exhaustion and irritability of the teacher, a demonstration that the atmosphere of the room is no longer such as the comfort, health, and cheerful labor of both teacher and pupils require.

X X X

FIG. 6.-SECTION, WITH STOVE, ETC.

EFFECTS OF BAD AIR ON THE HEALTH OF TEACHERS AND PUPILS.-In this way the seeds of disease are sown broadcast among the young, and especially among teachers of delicate health. "In looking back," says the venerable Dr. Woodbridge in a communication on school-houses to the American Institute of Instruction, upon the languor of fifty years of labor as a teacher, reiterated with many a weary day, I attribute a great proportion of it to mephetic air; nor can I doubt, that it has compelled many worthy and promising teachers to quit the employment. Neither can I doubt, that it has been the great cause of their subsequently sickly habits and untimely decease." A physician in Massachusetts, selected two schools, of nearly the same number of children, belonging to families of the same condition of life, and no causes, independent of the circumstances of their several school-houses, were known to affect their health. One house was dry and properly ventilated-the other damp, and not ventilated. In the former, during a period of forty-five days, five scholars were absent from sickness to the amount in the whole of twenty days. In the latter, during the same period of time, and from the same cause, nineteen children were absent to an amount in all of one hundred and forty-five days, and the appearance of the children not thus detained by sickness indicated a marked difference in their condition as to health.

The necessity of renewing the atmosphere, does not arise solely from the consumption of the oxygen, and the constant generation of carbonic acid, but from the presence of other destructive agents and impurities. There is carburetted hydrogen, which Dr. Dunglinson in his Physiology, characterizes, "as very depressing to the vital functions. Even while largely diluted with atmospheric air, it occasions vertigo, sickness, diminution of the force and velocity of the pulse, reduction of muscular vigor, and every symptom of diminished power." There is also sulphuretted hydrogen, which the same author says, in its pure state, kills instantly, and in its diluted state, produces powerful sedative effects on the pulse, muscles, and whole nervous system. There are also offensive and destructive impurities arising from the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter in contact with the stove, or dissolved in the evaporating dish.

TWO OBJECTS TO BE ATTENDED TO.-The objects to be attained are--the removal of such impurities, as have been referred to, and which are constantly generated, wherever there is animal life and burning fires, and the due supply of that vital principle, which is constantly consumed by breathing and combustion. The first can be in no other way effectually secured, but by making provision for its escape into the open air, both at the top and the bottom of the room; and the second, but by introducing a current of pure air from the outside of the building, warmed in winter by a furnace, or in some other mode, before entering the room. The two processes should go on together, i. e., the escape of the vitiated air from within, and the introduction of the pure air from without. The common fire-place andchimney secures the first object very effectually, for there is always a strong current of air near the floor, towards the fire, to support combustion, and supply the partial vacuum in the chimney occasioned by the ascending column of smoke and rarified air, and in this current the carbonic acid and other impurities will be drawn into the fire and up the chimney. But there is such an enormous waste of heat in these fire-places, and such a constant influx of cold air through every crevice in the imperfect fittings of the doors and windows, to supply the current always ascending in the chimney, that this mode of ventilating, by opening a window or door, although better than none, is also imperfect and objectionable; as the cold air falls directly on the head, neck, and other exposed parts of the body, when every pore is open, and thus causes discomfort, catarrh, and other more serious evils, to those sitting near, besides reducing the temperature of the whole room too suddenly and too low. This mode, however, should be resorted to at recess.

OPENINGS FOR VENTILATION.-There should be one or more openings, expressly for ventilation, both at the top and the bottom of the room, of not less than twelve inches square, capable of being wholly or partially closed by a slide of wood or metal, and, if possible, these openings, or the receptacle into which they discharge, should be connected with the chimney or smoke-flue, in which there is always a column of heated air. By an opening in or near the ceiling, the warmer impurities (and air when heated, and especially when over-heated, will retain noxious gases longer) will pass off. By an opening near the floor, into the smoke-flue, the colder impurities (and carbonic acid, and the other noxious gases, which at first rise, soon diffuse themselves through the atmosphere, cool, and subside toward the floor) will be drawn in to supply the current of heated air and smoke ascending the chimney. These openings, however, may let cold air in, and will not always secure the proper ventilation of a school-room, unless there is a current of pure warm air flowing in at the same time. Whenever there is such a current, there will be a greater economy, as well as a more rapid and uniform diffusion of the heat, by inserting the outlet for the vitiated air near the floor, and at the greatest distance from the inlet of warm air.

EVILS OF LOW TEMPERATURE.-There is a mischievous error prevailing, that if a room is kept at a low temperature there is no need of ventilation. Dr. Alcott mentions the

F

case of a teacher, who when asked if she did not find it difficult to keep her room ventilated, replied, "not at all, it is one of the coldest rooms in the city." The necessity of ventilation arises from the consumption of the oxygen, and the generation and accumulation of carbonic acid, principally in breathing, and both of these processes can go on and do go on, in a cold room, as well as in a warm one, if human beings are collected in it, and goes on rapidly and fatally according to the number of persons and the size and closeness of the apartment.

IMPORTANCE OF UNIFORM TEMPERATURE.—But whatever may be the mode of warning adopted, whether by open fireplace, or grate, stove wood or coal, or furnace, the temperature of the room should be uniform, and of the proper degree in every part. Not a child should be exposed to sudden and extreme changes of temperature, or compelled when overheated, or at any time, to sit against an inlet of cold air, or, with cold feet. This last is a violation of an indispensable condition of health. To secure a uniform temperature, a thermometer will not only be convenient, but necessary. It cannot be ascertained, for different parts of a room or for thirty or forty persons, differently cir. cumstanced as to heat or cold, or differently employed, some of whom are seated, some standing or changing, their position from time to time, without some less variable and uncertain standard than the teacher's feelings. However anxious he may be to make every scholar comfortable, he cannot be conscious at all times of the differing circumstances in which they are placed. He is not exposed to the rush of cold air, from a broken or loose window, or from cracks in the ceiling or in the floor. He is not roasted by a seat too near the the stove. He is not liable to a stagnation of the blood in the feet from want of exercise or an inconvenient bench. Even though he were capable of thus sympathizing with them, the temperature of the room after the fire is thoroughly going, and the doors closed, may pass gradually from 65° to 70° without change being perceptible. Now though we may breathe freely in such an atmosphere, gradually heated, we cannot pass into the open air 40° or 50° colder, as would be the case on most winter days, and much less receive a current of such air on a portion, and a sensitive portion of the body, without great danger. With a thermometer in a room, the beginning and progress of such a change would be indicated, and could be guarded against. BEST MODE OF VENTILATION.-The best mode, however, at the same time of warming and ventilating a school room, especially if it is large, is by pure air heated in a stove or furnace placed in the cellar or a room lower than the one to be warmed. No portion of the room, or the movements of the scholars, or the supervision of the teacher, are encumbered or interrupted by stove or pipe. The fire in such places can be maintained without noise and without throwing dust or smoke into the room. The offensive odors and impurities of burnt air, or rather of particles of vegetable or animal matter floating in the air, are not experienced. The heat can be conducted into the room at different points, and is thus diffused so as to secure a uniform summer temperature in every part of it. A room thus heated, even without any special arrangements for this object, will be tolerably well ventilated, for the constant influx of warm pure air into the room will force that which is already in it out at every crack and crevice, and thus reverse the process which is ordinarily going on in every school-room. By an opening or rather several small openings into the ceiling, or a flue, which in either case should connect with the outer air, the escape of the impure air will be more effectually secured.

PART 5.-INTERIOR

OF

SCHOOL-HOUSE,

SCHOOL FURNITURE, SEATING, &C.

In the selection of plans for and the construction of school furniture, it is recommended that Trustees consult some experienced teacher on the subject, and visit schools

which contain articles of an appropriate kind. Having thus made their selection, the furniture should either be constructed by some person engaged in the business, as in Toronto, Markham and Oshawa, or according to the plan and form of a model article of each kind, procured for that especial purpose. Specimens of school furniture, with their prices, can be seen at the Educational Department, Toronto.

For the arrangement of furniture no specific directions can be given which will meet all cases. Most houses and schools will require certain modifications to suit local or peculiar circumstances. Here again, the experienced judicious teacher will be found to be the safest adviser.

There are, however, certain general principles both of construction and arrangement, governing this subject, which should never be violated. These will be indicated in their proper place; leaving details to the circumstances of each case.

The accommodations for a school-house, embraced under the head of furniture, may be divided into three classes. 1. Those relating to the general care of the building, which chiefly have their place in the entry and clothes-rooms. 2. Those connected with the purposes of the principal school-room. 3d. Those of the gallery or class-rooms.

I. ENTRY AND CLOTHES ROOM FURNITURE.

THE SCRAPER.—The space immediately in front of every school-house should be paved with brick or stone, covered with plank, or the surface, by some other appropriate means, rendered smooth and so hard as to resist the action of the rain and frost. On this space the steps or platform leading to the door will be placed, and either will be incomplete without a strong, convenient shoe-scraper at each side. Two will be required, for the reason that the pupils enter the school, morning and afternoon, about the same time, and if there be only one scraper, it will either cause delay or compel some to enter the building with soiled shoes. Cleanliness and neatness are amongst the cardinal virtues of the school-room; and every means of inculcating and promoting them should receive the earliest and most constant attention.

THE MAT.-After the rougher and heavier portion of the mud has been scraped from the feet, a good rubbing on a coarse mat will not only remove the balance, but aid in drying the shoes, so that there will be less danger from wet and damp feet than would be experienced without this preoaution. In addition to this, there will thus be less of that annoying dust in the school-room, which, when present in large quantities, is constantly kept afloat in the air, to the great discomfort of the inmates and to the injury of clothes, books and lungs. A pair of mats, or two pair in a large School, to be used alternately-one to be dried and beaten free of dust while the other is in use-may be made of corn-husks or straw. If the teacher manage properly, mats, quite sufficient for the purpose, will be readily made or provided by the larger pupils in turn, if they can be had in no other way. These rough mats should be placed just inside the main entrance door; and if the female pupils were to prepare a rag mat to be laid inside of or near the door leading from the entry or vestibule into the school room, for a second wiping of the feet, the precautions against dust in the room would be complete. The use of the scraper and mat should in all cases be insisted on, and every pupil entering with soiled feet should be sent back and made to clean them.

THE WASH-BASIN.-Children often soil their hands in play, and some even come to school with unwashed hands and faces and uncombed hair. Such should never be permitted to enter the school-room, till all the requirements of outward decency are complied with. In the country it will generally be too far to send them home again for that‍purpose; and therefore preparation for it should be found in the school. Hence, a tin basin on a shelf in the corner of the entry of a small school, a wash-stand in a larger building, or a regular wash-closet in one of the highest class, becomes proper. Soap and towels

will also be indispensable; and if not provided by the section, they should be by the pupils, for whose use and benefit they are alone needed.

BUCKETS. Every school should have two buckets-one for drinking fater with cup near it, and one for washing and scrubbing purposes.

BROOM AND BRUSHES.-No school however small or plain, should be without a broom for sweeping the floor at least twice a week, and if daily, the better. Large buildings should also have a hair sweeping or floor brush, and a cobweb brush or ceiling duster with a long handle. To this list should also be added a scrubbing brush for the floor and a white-wash brush for the walls; and the more they are all used, the better for the health and habits of the pupils.

UMBRELLA STAND.-In wet weather the entry, or the corners of the school-room, are often flooded with the drippings of Umbrellas. The one-half of a water tight barrel placed in one corner of the entry, would receive the umbrellas of the whole school, and prevent this annoyance. In the larger schools something more complete should be found. A water-tight trough one foot wide and one foot deep, and two, three or four feet long, according to circumstances, painted inside and out, with four legs a foot high, and a guard or slat around it about one foot above the top edge for the umbrellas to lean against, would be a neat article of furniture, cost but little, and contain a large number of umbrellas. There should also be a hole in the bottom of it, with a cork, to run off the collected water into a bucket.

FIRE-IRONS.--If the school is heated by means of a wood stove, a pair of tongs and a fire shovel, with an ash-bucket or pan, will be indispensable. If coal is used, a pair of tongs will also be necessary, with a small shovel and a poker, a coal scuttle and a sieve for the cinders. In both cases an axe and a saw to cut the wood or the kindling, will also be needed.

CLOTHES HOOKS.-In all new school-houses enough of these to allow one for each pupil, should be embraced in the contract for building. In old houses they should be at once put up. One should be assigned to each pupil and numbered, and each should be required to use his or her own, as in the Model School, Toronto. There is a very cheap kind of cast iron hooks, which are rarely worth the tronble of fastening to the wall. They break off with the slightest degree of strain.

The better kind should be procured, or wooden pins, well slanted upwards, should be used.

DINNER CLOSET.-In the country many pupils, living at a distance, necessarily bring their dinners with them, and require a safe and fit place for it, during the forenoon. A closet, with a lock and key, should be placed in the entry or clothes room for this purpose. When this is done, the closet should be locked by one of the pupils appointed for that purpose, after all are in. Thus the baskets will be properly and safely kept, and the untidy practice of having them standing under the desks or along the walls in the school-room, avoided. This will also prevent those liberties being taken with the dinner baskets by mischievous pupils while passing in and out during school hours, which often create disturbance, when the baskets are left in the clothes rooms without being lecked up.

MODE OF OBTAINING THESE ARTICLES.-Several of the articles just named are indispensable and will not be refused by any Board of Trustees. Others may be. In that case it will be in the power of the teacher, by showing a disposition to keep the schoolhouse in good order and condition, and by a respectful representation of the utility and necessity of additional articles, to induce a reasonable Board to allow them. If not, he has the pupils to appeal to. By proper explanation of the uses and value of the desired conveniences, and of the habits dependent on them, he will rarely fail in creating such a feeling in the school as will supply all that is reqnisite, till the Trustees shall discover their own duty in the matter.