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wisdom over folly, but holds that this very superiority is practically cancelled because the same death befalls the sage as the fool. Moveover, whatever a man acquires by wise labour may be inherited by a worthless simpleton, while his own memory is utterly forgotten. On the whole the best thing is moderate enjoyment coupled with or produced by reasonable labour. This seems to be the meaning of the words, 'There is nothing better for a man than that he should eat and drink, and that he should let his soul enjoy happiness in his labour.' The phrase 'eat and drink' seems, as Mr. Moulton says, to express a general appreciation of what life brings with it' in the way of happiness and enjoyment. May we then go so far as to say that the ultimate advice of Koheleth is the same as that of the visionary youth in Goethe's poem :—

'Tages Arbeit, Abends Gäste!

Saure Wochen, frohe Feste !
Sei dein künftig Zauberwort.'

Yet even here he sees irony, for that which is best is itself a 'breath.'

The words in italics seem to be editorial. The second part of them supplies the corrective to what the Preacher had said about the fool succeeding to the labour of the wise. The pious editor insists that it is rather the good who inherit the gathered treasures of the wicked.

§ 7. Travail and disappointment.

To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven:

A time to be born, and a time to die;

A time to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted;

A time to kill, and a time to heal;

A time to break down, and a time to build up;

A time to weep, and a time to laugh;

A time to mourn, and a time to dance;

A time to cast away stones, and a time to gather stones together;

A time to embrace, and a time to refrain from embracing; A time to get, and a time to lose;

A time to keep, and a time to cast away;

A time to rend, and a time to sew;

A time to keep silence, and a time to speak;

A time to love, and a time to hate;

A time of war, and a time of peace.

What profit hath he that worketh in that wherein he laboureth?

I saw the travail, which God hath given to the sons of men to plague themselves therewith. He hath made every thing beautiful in its time; also he hath put the world in their heart, except that no man can find out the work that God hath made from the beginning to the end. (?) I know that there is no good among them, but for a man to rejoice, and to enjoy good in his life. [But also that every man should eat and drink, and enjoy good in all his labour, it is the gift of God.] I know that, whatsoever God doeth, it shall be for ever: nothing can be put to it, nor any thing taken from it: [and God hath so made it, that men should fear before him.] That which is hath been long ago; and that which is to be hath already been; and God reneweth the past.

And furthermore I saw under the sun: in the place of judgement there was wickedness; and in the place of righteousness there was iniquity. [I said in mine heart, God shall judge the righteous and the wicked: for he hath set a time for every purpose and for every work.] I said in mine heart it is because of the sons of men, that God may shew them that they are but beasts. (?) For the lot of the sons of men and the lot of the beast-one lot is to both of them: as the one dieth, so dieth the other; yea, they have all one breath; so that a man hath no preeminence above a beast: for all is vanity. All go unto one place; all are of the dust, and all turn to dust again. Who knoweth whether the spirit of man goeth upward, and the spirit of the beast goeth downward to the earth? Wherefore I perceived that there is nothing better, than that a man should rejoice in his own works; for that is his portion: for who can bring him to see what shall be after him?

And moreover I considered all the oppressions that are done under the sun: and behold the tears of such as were oppressed, and they had no comforter; and on the side of their oppressors there was power; but they had no comforter. Wherefore I praised the dead who are already dead more than the living who are yet alive. And better than both is

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he who hath not yet been, who hath not seen the evil work that is done under the sun.

Again, I considered all travail, and every skilful work, that it cometh of a man's rivalry with his neighbour. This is also vanity and vexation of spirit. The fool foldeth his hands together, and eateth his own flesh. Yet better is an handful with quietness, than both the hands full with travail and vexation of spirit.

And again I saw vanity under the sun. There is a man who hath neither child nor brother: yet is there no end of all his labour; neither is his eye satisfied with riches. For whom, then, saith he, do I labour, and bereave my soul of good? This is also vanity, yea, it is a sore travail.

Two are better than one; because they have a good reward for their labour. For if they fall, the one will lift up his fellow but woe to him that is alone when he falleth; for he hath not another to help him up. Again, if two lie together, then they have heat: but how can one be warm alone? And if a man prevail against one, yet two shall withstand him; and a threefold cord is not quickly broken.

Better is a poor and a wise child than an old and foolish king, who knoweth no more to be warned. For out of prison he came to reign, although in the kingdom of the other he was born poor. I contemplated all the living who walk under the sun, on the side of the child, to wit, the second one, that should stand up in the stead of the other. There was no end of all the people, even of all them at whose head he stood; yet they that come after will not rejoice in him. Surely this also is vanity and pursuit of wind.

This interesting section contains many difficulties. The list of 'seasons seems to lead up to the conclusion that no labour can ensure profit because one cannot be sure that the right moment for any particular course of action has certainly been found.

The sentence containing the words 'he hath put the world in their heart' is very obscure and doubtful. Does it mean there is a sort of natural God-given instinct or propensity in man to seek to understand the world,' but that this impulse can never be fully gratified? A vein of selfishness runs through our author's reflections. Unless you profit personally by your own labour, it is profitless altogether. If you personally cannot reach final conclusions by your thinking, it is better not to think at all. But

social progress and scientific achievement demand alike unselfish abnegation.

The words in italics that follow seem interpolated. So too those about the divine motive and the divine judgement, which seem to contradict the general tendency of the author to emphasize the immunity of wickedness from punishment.

The following verse is probably corrupt. As it stands the Hebrew must be translated: 'It is because of the sons of men, that God may prove them, and that they may see that they themselves are beasts.'

Koheleth touches on the idea that the destiny of man may be different from the destiny of the beast, but he rejects it on the agnostic ground that it is a question which none can answer.

The following paragraphs contain a variety of ironical observations and cautious counsels. The wise child and the foolish

king probably refer to contemporary history, but so far the allusions have not been satisfactorily explained.

The commentators provide us with many parallels for all these mournful reflections from Greek literature. It is hard to believe that Koheleth was not influenced in one way or another by Greek thought and speculation.

§ 8. Prudential maxims.-Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God, for to draw nigh in order to hear is better than to give the sacrifice of fools: for they know not except to do evil. Be not rash with thy mouth, and let not thine heart be hasty to utter a word before God: for God is in heaven, and thou upon earth: therefore let thy words be few. For a dream cometh through multitude of travail: and a fool's voice through multitude of words. When thou vowest a vow unto God, defer not to pay it; for he hath no pleasure in fools: pay that which thou hast vowed. Better is it that thou shouldest not vow, than that thou shouldest vow and not pay. Suffer not thy mouth to bring thy flesh into guilt; neither say thou before the messenger [i. e. the priest], that it was an error: wherefore should God be angry at thy voice, and destroy the work of thine hands? For in the multitude of dreams and words there is also much vanity: but fear thou God.

If thou seest the oppression of the poor, and violent perverting of judgement and justice in the province, marvel not at the matter: for one that is higher watcheth warily above him that is high; and there be higher than they. But

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the profit of a land generally is a king that is devoted to the soil. (?)

He that loveth silver shall not be satisfied with silver; nor hath he that loveth riches increase from them: this is also vanity. When goods increase, they are increased that eat them and what good is there to the owners thereof, saving the beholding of them with their eyes? The sleep of a labouring man is sweet, whether he eat little or much: but the satiety of the rich will not suffer him to sleep. There is a sore evil which I have seen under the sun, namely, riches kept for the owners thereof to their hurt. For if those riches perish by an evil chance, and he hath begotten a son, nothing remaineth in his hand. As he came into the world, naked shall he return from it, and shall take nothing for his labour, which he may carry away in his hand. And this also is a sore evil, that in all points as he came, so shall he go: and what profit hath he that hath laboured for the wind? All his days are passed in darkness and mourning, and much suffering and wrath. Behold that which I have seen as good and fair: that a man should eat and drink, and enjoy good in all his labour that he taketh under the sun all the days of his life, which God giveth him: for that is his portion. [Every man also to whom God hath given riches and wealth, and hath given him power to eat thereof, and to take his portion, and to rejoice in his labour-this is a gift of God.] For he shall not greatly bear in mind the days of his life; because God answereth to the joy of his heart. (?)

There is an evil which I have seen under the sun, and it is heavy upon men: a man to whom God hath given riches, wealth and honour, so that he wanteth nothing for his soul of all that he desireth, yet God giveth him not power to eat thereof, but a stranger eateth it: this is vanity, and a sore sickness. If a man beget an hundred children, and live many years, and though he be great all the days of his life, yet if his soul be not filled with good, and if he have no burial; I say, that an untimely birth is better than he. For that cometh in nothingness, and departeth in darkness, and its name is covered with darkness. Moreover it hath not seen the sun, nor known any thing: yet is it better off than he. Yea, though he live a thousand years twice told, and did not see good: do not all go to one place?