it became so powerful an ally of the capitalists, and remained loyal to its creed because he believed in it, and because the Party which always stood as its sponsor was the champion of so many questions of great National importance. More than this, to many it would have seemed unpatriotic, almost treasonable, during the years immediately following the Civil War, to have advocated Free Trade, for that had been the policy of the slaveholders' Party. And, finally, Burrows had seen with his own eyes the unparalleled prosperity which came to industry and commerce from the application of this principle.

At the time when Alexander Hamilton made the first formal defense of Protection, in his famous report on manufactures, there was no danger of having tariff duties manipulated in favor of special interests, because manufactures scarcely existed. The early idea of Protection was to create and foster rather than to protect. If manufacturing interests sprang into existence as a result of this paternal influence, a demand would naturally arise for the consumption of raw material. Furthermore, the Federal Government needed an income which should be independent of the States, and a discriminating duty upon imports was a much more popular method of securing this than a direct tax upon the people. All American citizens felt the importance of becoming industrially

independent if the Nation was to become great.

While it was generally understood that when the infant industries became established upon a firm basis all duties might be abolished, circumstances combined to commit the Federal Government to a definite policy of Protection. With the establishment of Free Trade between the States, and the discriminating duties upon imports, came a prosperity beyond all expectations. The struggle between France and England from 1806 to 1812, followed by our own war with England, destroyed American commerce and forced the country to become commercially selfreliant. At the close of the war, the United States was literally swamped by the importation of foreign goods, and self-preservation brought into existence a powerful capitalistic Party, which supported the Federal Government in maintaining and advancing its protective policy.

When the Civil War broke upon the country, the Federal Government was taxed to the utmost to develop every possible source of revenue, and the capitalistic Party found ready listeners at Washington to its suggestion of still further increasing import duties. England's sympathy with the South, imperfectly concealed, was so obvious an effort to reduce this country to a position where she should produce raw materials only, thus destroying American compet

ing manufactures, that another powerful argument was added in favor of Protection. After the success of the Northern armies it was never forgotten that written into the Constitution of the Confederate States were clauses forbidding Congress "to appropriate money for any internal improvement intended to facilitate commerce,” and prescribing that “no bounties shall be granted from the Treasury, nor shall any taxes on imports from foreign nations be laid to promote or foster any branch of domestic industry.”

After the Civil War the country turned rapidly from agriculture to manufactures, and the capitalistic Party gained in strength and aggressiveness. Those engaged in the production of raw materials, quick to see the advantages accruing to the manufacturers, demanded equal protection for themselves, and received the forced support of the now "favored class." In order to justify this, it was argued that foreign trade was at best an evil to be diminished to as great an extent as possible; that high prices should be maintained in order to permit high wages; that the home market should be protected for home products.

The Republican Party at its birth stood for Protection, and whether willingly or not this principle was stamped indelibly upon its standard by the circumstances already cited. It was the Republican Party

which preserved the Union, which maintained the payment of State and National debts, and in this way it gained prestige which reflected credit upon all its tenets. During its administration National and international relations prospered, and the tendency of the country was unquestionably in the direction of capitalistic development, the railroads and the canals opened up the great natural resources to the people, the National expansion of free education made that people competent to receive the benefits. It is not strange that Burrows should have been staunch in his conviction that Protection was one of the greatest boons his Party had conferred upon his country, or that he should have proved so able an exponent and defendant of the principle itself.

Until the nomination of Grover Cleveland in 1884 for the Presidency of the United States, the long supremacy of the Republican Party precluded any danger of having the principle seriously undermined; the discussion related simply to the means and method of arranging the tariff. Burrows, therefore, had little occasion to express himself forcefully upon this particular phase of Republicanism until he found himself, with his fellow-Republicans, face to face with the real issue of Protection against Free Trade in this Presidential campaign. On October 20, 1884, he made an address before the Michigan farmers, and

explained the importance of Protection in its relation to agriculture. It is an excellent example of his methods of expounding the doctrines in which he believed:

“It must be apparent to every one,” he said, “that in some way we must meet the annual expenses of this Government. No one would think it wise or prudent, no one would call it good statesmanship, not to provide for these yearly expenses. It is estimated that it takes some $300,000,000. With a population of 50,000,000 people, if we should resort to direct taxation it would compel every man, woman, and child in this Republic to pay $6 apiece annually. We do not collect this revenue by direct taxation, but we collect it by the imposition of the tariff, and the imposition of a direct tax on the people would cer tainly be very unpopular and end in revolution. So the fathers, at the time of the foundation of the Republic, wisely determined to resort to the method of indirect taxation, or the imposition of duties on imported goods, as the best means of raising the requisite amount to defray the expenses of the Government. The first Congress, at its first session under the Constitution of the United States, passed as its second Act a measure imposing duties on foreign. imports; and the first Act signed by George Washington, saving the Act regulating the oath of office, was