schooner, stampede, sidewalk, lumber (cut timber), lumberer or lumberman, lumber-yard.

Among the expressions as to which national use in England differs from that in America are:

and phrases.

That a book purporting to be English should not be half French or half German is obvious; but there are cases in which a foreign word is justifiable. In this Foreign words matter no hard-and-fast rule can be laid down. It is too much to say that national use prohibits every foreign word or phrase for which there is an English equivalent; but there can be no doubt that such words. should be used sparingly. Sometimes good taste chooses a foreign word, when the word is likely to be understood

1 As in "The Corn Laws."

2 As in "The Gold-Bug," by E. A. Poe.

by the great body of readers, but often it is bad taste that makes the choice. One writer who has but a small stock of French is eager to air his little all; another hopes to "enrich" or "elevate” her style by overloading it with imported ornament, some genuine, some pinchbeck; another caters to vulgar readers who prefer secondrate French to first-rate English. A writer who has mastered his business will follow the laws of good sense and good taste; a writer who is still learning his business will be wise if he decides every doubtful case in favor of his mother tongue.

The following are instances of foreign expressions to which English equivalents are preferable: née (born, as "Casaubon, born Brooke "1), on the tapis (carpet), coup de soleil (sunstroke), mal de mer (seasickness), trottoir (sidewalk), morceau (piece), émeute (riot), fracas (brawl), abattoir (slaughter-house), feux d'artifice (fireworks), dépôt (station), gamin (street boy, street Arab), chevalier d'industrie (adventurer), bas bleu (blue-stocking), al fresco (veranda) chairs, kudos (glory), ad libitum (at pleasure), ad infinitum (indefinitely), in extenso (at full length), in extremis (at the point of death), pari passu (with equal pace, abreast), rara avis (a prodigy).2

Reputable use.

REPUTABLE USE is fixed, not by the practice of those whom A or B deems the best speakers or writers, but by the practice of those whom the world deems the best, those who are in the best repute, not indeed as to thought, but as to expression, the manner of communicating thought. The practice of no one writer, however high he may stand in the public estimation, is enough to settle a point; but the uniform or nearly uniform practice of reputable speakers or writers is decisive. Their aim being to communicate fully and promptly what

1 George Eliot: Middlemarch.

For other examples, see "The Foundations of Rhetoric," pp. 181–186.

they have to say, they choose the words best adapted to that purpose; and their choice, in its turn, gives authority to the words that they adopt.

Most words which are in both present and national use are in reputable use also; but there are words which, though in more or less good colloquial use in all parts of the country, have not yet received the sanction of the best speakers and writers. Such words cannot be

regarded as in reputable use.

Among common expressions not in reputable use are: hard up, on tick, on the go, in bad form, in the swim, bogus, brainy, bully or crack (excellent), bumptious, climated (acclimated), cunning (piquant or pretty), cute, fetching (taking, attractive), finicky, fresh (verdant and presuming), funny (strange), shaky, swagger and swell (as adjectives), swingeing (huge), well-posted (well-informed), ugly (ill-tempered), boodle, a new dodge, drummer (commercial traveller), gumption, plunder (baggage), sleeper (sleeping-car), to bulldoze, to catch on (catch the meaning), to hustle (act energetically), a hustler, to run (manage), to tub (bathe), to size up, to skedaddle, to wire or to cable (telegraph), a wire or a cable (telegram), ilk (kind, class) as, "Tyler and others of that ilk," "Gov. Waite and his ilk."1

tween law and

These principles taken for granted, it follows that grammarians and lexicographers have no authority not derived from good use. Their business is to Analogy berecord in a convenient form the decision of language. every case as to which recent writers or speakers of national reputation agree; and they have no more right to question the correctness of a decision than the compiler of a digest has to overrule a legislature or a court.

When, however, usage is divided, when two forms of expression are almost equally supported by authority,

1 Ilk, a Scotch word meaning "same," properly used in "Brad wardine of that ilk," that is, of the estate of the same name. See "Waverley," vol. ii. chap xiv.

there is room for argument, as there is when legal precedents conflict. In the latter case, the question is looked at in the light of the general principles of law; in the former case, the question may be looked at in the light of the general principles of language. In each case, a critic's conclusion is an expression of personal opinion, not an authoritative decision: it binds nobody, and it is frequently overruled.

In the choice between two expressions equally or almost equally in good use, help may be gained from three practical rules, - rules that should serve not as shackles but as guides to the judgment. If, as sometimes happens, these rules conflict with one another, good sense must decide between them. If, as sometimes happens, nothing is to be gained by observing a rule, it may be neglected. Regard, in short, should be paid not to the letter but to the spirit.

precision.

I. Of two forms of expression which may be used in The rule of the same sense, that one should be chosen which, in the case in hand, is susceptible of but one interpretation. Observance of this rule tends to give to each word a meaning of its own.

Acts, in the sense of "things done," is preferable to actions, since actions also means "processes of doing."

Admit, in cases into which the idea of confession does not enter, is preferable to confess. On grounds of idiom, however, "I must confess" and the parenthetical "I confess are exempt from the operation of this rule.

Aware, when used in reference to objects of perception, things outside ourselves, is preferable to conscious, since conscious strictly refers to sensations, thoughts, or feelings, things within ourselves.

Deathly, in the sense of "resembling death," as, " She was deathly pale," is preferable to deadly, since deadly also means "inflicting death."

Egotism, in the sense of "self-worship," is preferable to egoism,' since egoism also designates a system of philosophy.

Falsity, in the sense of "non-conformity to truth," without any suggestion of blame, is preferable to falseness, since falseness usually implies blame.

Limit, in the sense of "bound," narrative, in the sense of "that which is narrated," product, in the sense of "thing produced," relative, in the sense of "member of a family," are preferable to limitation, narration, production, relation, since each of these is also used in an abstract sense.

Oral, in the sense of "in spoken words," is preferable to verbal, since verbal means "in words" whether spoken or written.

Partly, in the sense of "in part," is preferable to partially, since partially also means "with partiality.”

Pitiable, in the sense of "deserving pity," is preferable to pitiful, since pitiful also means compassionate," as, "The Lord is very

pitiful, and of tender mercy."

The verb purpose, in the sense of "intend,” is preferable to propose, since to propose also means "to offer for consideration:" the noun answering to the former is purpose; to the latter, proposal or proposition.

Receipt, in the sense of "formula for a pudding, etc.," is preferable to recipe, since recipe is commonly restricted to medical prescriptions.

Speciality, in the sense of "distinctive quality," is preferable to specialty, since specialty is also used in the sense of "distinctive thing."

Stay, as in "At what hotel are you staying?" is preferable to stop, since stop also means "to stop without staying.”

Several pairs of words that once were used indiscriminately are no longer, or are rarely, so used. For example: admittance and admission; insurance and assurance; sanatory and sanitary; sewage and sewerage.

II. Of two forms of expression which may be used in the same sense, the simpler should be chosen. One

1 George Eliot uses egoism in the sense of egotism, and Mr. George Meredith calls one of his novels " The Egoist," his meaning being "The Egotist."