portions of a poem about a great Gothic hero, Beowulf, whose deeds were in every mouth; or their Saga-men tell of Odin, the Alfathir, and Thor, the thunderer, of Tiw, the God of War, and Fria, the fruitful goddess. But the old traditions and beliefs were soon to be replaced by the Christian religion; and although our forefathers still cherished secretly the love and memory of their old heathen deities, the names of Woden, of Thor, of Fria, and Tiw are preserved only in the days of the week,-Woden's-day, Thor's-day, Fria's-day, and Tiw's-day. In the year 597 these Angles and Saxons were formally converted to Christianity by Augustine and his followers, who had been sent thither from Rome, for that purpose, by Pope Gregory. But the pagan traditions of the Gothic race did not perish.* They were carried by the Northmen into Iceland, and there cherished, as the Celtic legends of Arthur had been in Wales and Brittany; and, like the Celtic legends, they were restored to literature in the twelfth century. The Saxons, for so we are accustomed to call the early English, comprising the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, were now firmly established in the island, and the name of England was adopted soon after by these " Englise fole," as they called themselves. Many Saxon kings reigned, but one was truly great. ALFRED, the wise, good, and powerful king, united in himself all the qualities which fitted him to be the Father of his country, and to bear the title of the "Great." His reign (871-901) was disturbed by the Danes, who were nearly allied to the AngloSaxons. They inhabited the country which the "Englisc fole" had left, but they were troublesome, piratical neighbors. After many attempts to secure the English throne, they at last succeeded, and from 1017 until 1041 a Danish line of kings ruled England. Being so closely allied to the English there was little change occasioned in the language. In 1041 the Anglo-Saxons conquered the Danes, and resuming their sway ruled England until the nation was conquered by the Normans in 1066. The Normans were likewise related to the Anglo-Saxons; for * The traditions of the Goths, together with the discourses of Odin and the story of his life, were preserved in the two Eddas, the sacred and historic books of the Northmen. when, in the fifth century, the Saxons invaded and took possession of England, the Franks, another German tribe, possessed themselves of Gaul. In the ninth and tenth centuries, when the Danes were plundering the coast of England, tribes of the same people, called Northmen, Norsemen, or Normans, invaded northern France and established the dukedom of Normandy. Adopting the language of the conquered people, they formed the Norman-French language. The original people of Gaul, like those of Britain, had been Celts. Conquered by the Romans, they had learned by ear to speak the Roman language, and more readily than the Celts of Britain adopted it as their own. So, before the Gothic invasion of Gaul, the language of that nation was a corrupt Latin or Romance dialect.* It will be seen that northern France, having a double infusion of the Gothic element, from the last Norman invaders, was more nearly allied to the Anglo-Saxon race than southern France (Provençe,) which retained its Romance character. So entirely distinct, indeed, were the languages of Normandy and Provence, that one was called Langue d'oui and the other Langue d'oc; that is, the sounds of the same words were so different that yes in Normandy was oui, and in Provence it was oc. THE LITERATURE OF ENGLAND. Poetry, or rude numbers, has been the first form of expression in the literature of every nation, and usually we find that sentiments of religion are earliest embodied in written language. The Celts had a literature of their own, quite distinct from any that followed. Their Druid bards composed the religious hymns and the war-songs of the nation.† * The Romance languages of Southern Europe-of Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal-are merely a corrupt form of Latin, or Latin learned by the ear from the Roman soldiers as they passed through these countries or dwelt with these Celtic nations. †The Druids were a class of people held in sacred esteem by the Celts of Gaul and Britain. They had unlimited authority in religion and in affairs of government. They were likewise teachers of the young. Their instructions were conveyed in verse, and it required twenty years of study to become conversant with the circle of the sciences they taught. The religious ceremonies of the Druids presented two extreme phases, one typical of innocence and purity and one horrible in the extreme. They worshipped in the groves and forests, and the oak was their sacred tree. When the mistletoe was found upon it, which was regarded with especial reverence by the Druids, they made a The earliest Celtic poets whose names are recorded in history are OSSIAN, MERLIN, and TALIESIN. Ossian probably lived in the third century, and Merlin and Taliesin in the mythical period of Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Ireland, with its ancient traditions extending so far back into the regions of time as to startle the curious scholar, was one of the earliest seats of learning. The poet, with his staff of office, the historian, whose calling was transmitted from generation to generation, were recognized powers in the government of Ireland as early as the third century. Christianity was introduced into Ireland before the great Saint Patrick's time, as it was really introduced into England at a very much earlier date than that of Augustine's mission. When, in the early centuries of the Dark Ages, learning was exiled from Southern Europe, it took refuge in the monasteries of Ireland. The English people went over to this island for study and retirement, and were gratuitously supplied with everything pertaining to instruction. The Irish sent their learned men abroad as missionaries. Saint COLUMBA (520– 597) carried the Christian religion to Scotland and the Hebrides, and founded the celebrated monastery of Iona. Saint COLUMBANUS (540-615) visited the continent and founded monasteries in various places. Here the monks, in careful Latin, copied and preserved the ancient manuscripts of the church and of classic writers, so that the monasteries became the conservatories of learning. banquet beneath the limb on which it grew, and, crowning themselves with oakleaves, performed their sacred rites. Then the Druid priest, clothed in a white robe, ascended the tree, and with a golden knife cut off the mistletoe,-the "all-heal,”— and sacrifice and feasting followed. But these simple, innocent ceremonies did not prevent those of the most cruel nature, and yearly a human sacrifice was offered. The Roman invasion extinguished this barbarous rite, and soon the Druidic power declined. The island of Anglesea (Mona) was the last refuge of the Druids. Their cromlechs, or rude structures of unhewn stone, which may have been reared as altars or as memorial tablets, are still to be found in Wales, Scotland, and Brittany, while that of Stonehenge, near Salisbury, in England, is the most celebrated. ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD. 450-1154. When the "Englisc folc" came over, they brought with them their great epic poem Beowulf-whether as an entire poem or as different sagas, recited and sung by Sagamen and Scalds, is not clearly ascertained. The author is unknown, but he has vividly portrayed to us the life and manners of our rude ancestors. We see the "mead-hall" where hospitality was dispensed to the "table-sharers,' ""hearth-enjoyers" of the chief. We hear the heartfelt welcome as the "hand-gripe" is given to the "swordwielders," and "far-dwellers" who have come to them over the "wave-path." The scenes in the story of Beowulf are laid in Denmark and Sweden (Gothland). The hero, Beowulf, is a Goth, who, hearing of the distress of Hrothgar, King of Denmark, owing to the nightly ravages of a monster named Grendel, goes with a company of fifteen warriors to rid the Danish lord of his dreaded foe. Þá waes on salum gamol-feax and gúð-róf, geóce gelyfde faestraedne geþóht. baer waes haeleba hleahtor hlyn suynsode, word waéron wynsume, cwén Hróðgáres cynna gemyndig, Then was rejoiced the distributor of treasure, the bright Danes' lord, There was laughter of men words were winsome, Hrothgar's queen; mindful of their races, and then the joyous woman baed hine bliðne (beón) bade him (be) blithe aet þáere beór-bege, leodum leófne. the dear to his people. After the feasting is over, the king and his household retire, and Beowulf awaits the coming of the nightly visitant. Þá com of móre Wód under wolcnum gold-sele gumena faettum fáhne. Then came from the moor He strode under the clouds After a long contest Beowulf kills the monster, and, receiving rich gifts from Hrothgar, returns to his own country-the land of the East Goths. In due season he becomes king of this country, and his last warlike encounter is with a fiery dragon that infests his own domain. Beowulf kills the dragon, but dies from venom received in the conflict. The story of Beowulf was wholly Gothic in its original conception, and the few interpolations giving the tone of the later religion, were probably made by some monk of the seventh century. It is impossible to fix the date of the composition of this old Pagan story. It must simply stand as the first known poem in our language, or indeed in any Teutonic language. In the seventh century lived the first English poet, CAEDMON (680). Little dreaming that he possessed within himself the divine gift of song, this poet's life, until he was past middle age, was spent as a simple cowherd, a calling more humble even than that of a shepherd. We first see him seated in one of the "mead-halls" of the great, where song and mirth are resounding, and stories of great deeds, perhaps those of Beowulf, are told. It was the custom of an evening, especially on an occasion of festivity, for all, regardless of rank, to assemble in the hall, and each to take his turn to sing, accompanying his song with the harp. One evening, as the stories went round, and song and revelry |