politician. The press is subsidized for the purpose of spreading false reports and of manufacturing a fictitious public opinion. As in the days of Bismarck, who had newspapers in his pay and ordered them systematically to circulate calumnies against his opponents, so in the present times-and these newspapers are not in one country only, but are found in all. What Mr. Carnegie said about the general recognition of the principle that war may be waged without any formal declaration, shows how much the public morality of Europe has, in some respects, deteriorated.

The position of France in relation to her neighbors, as the resultant of the forces which have been acting upon her, seems to be somewhat as follows: Towards Germany she holds an attitude of reserve, if not one of suspicion. The entente with England remains unbroken and has been strengthened, although M. Rouvier, it is said, has negatived any idea of forming a definite alliance. The Municipal Council of Paris has paid a visit to London and its members have been the guests of the London County Councilors in their homes. A return visit is to be paid to Paris. The German Emperor's strong desire to have France as a supporter seems further than ever from realization, although there are those who think it not unlikely that he may offer to give France a free hand in Morocco in return for French support elsewhere; and there are not wanting Frenchmen ready to accept these terms. Another instance of what has become a marked feature of European politics-the mutual visits of the heads of states-has taken place. M. Loubet has been paying a visit to the King of Spain, and was warmly received both by the Sovereign and his people. The understanding as to Morocco, which had already been made between France and Spain, has consequently been strengthened, and France and Spain are understood to be in perfect accord. Between Italy and France friendly feelings exist. But Italy is a member of the Triple Alliance, and how she would act in the event of Germany's making war on France is a question hard to answer; writers worthy of attention declare that she would have to be faithful to the duties imposed by the Alliance. Nothing so far has broken the union which exists by virtue of the Treaty with Russia. Both powers are abiding by its terms. But with Russia in a state of chaos, the influence of this union is much diminished.

As to interior affairs, the impending general election is beginning to cast its shadow before. The Bloc, by means of which so much legislation hostile to the Church was passed, shows signs of dissolution. During the whole of the WaldeckRousseau Ministry and that of M. Combes the Socialists stood shoulder to shoulder with the Radicals. Now M. Jaurès and his friends are acting in a great number of constituencies in opposition to the Radical Republicans and refusing to work with them any longer. The Radicals themselves are in confusion, and a general state of disorder seems at hand.

The movement for the settlement of international difficulties by arbitration has many distinguished Frenchmen for its advocates and promoters. But, with the love of logic which is said. to be characteristic of the French, a certain number of Frenchmen placarded the walls with a violent appeal to the conscripts to refuse all obedience to their officers, to fire on them if ordered to use their rifles during strike disturbances, and, since "all war is criminal," it orders for mobilization were given, they were called upon to retort by insurrection. The people of Paris were indignant at the expression of such sentiments. In fact, visitors to France find that a very warlike feeling has come into existence. The external dangers have contributed to bring together those who until recently were opponents. The first act of the Assembly on its meeting was to pass an Amnesty for political offenders, as a result of which M. Paul Déroulède has returned to France.

Austria-Hungary.

After Russia, Austria-Hungary is still the most disturbed of the countries of Europe, nor is the end in sight. The Hungarian Parliament has been again prorogued. The Ministry of Baron Fejervary has been reinstated in office, although it has no supporters in either House. Its task now is to find them among the present members, and if this is impracticable to dissolve and appeal to the country. For this purpose it has issued a long programme resembling a Party Platform in this country. So comprehensive is the list of the Reforms it proposes that the other parties are at their wits' end to know what inducements they can offer. The most important of the proposals of Baron Fejervary is the extension

of the suffrage. To this the Magyars are opposed. They are afraid lest their own power should be lost. For, like many others, it is not a purely disinterested love of liberty which actuates the present agitators. The Magyars domineer and love to domineer over the Croats and the other races which form part of the Transleithanian dominions, and yet the Magyars number less than half of the population.

The proposals of the government will, if carried, make the electorate three times as large as at present, the franchise being given to all males who have completed their twentyfourth year and who are able to read and write. It would take too much space to mention all the other proposals. They embrace military, economic, agrarian, industrial, judicial, educational, political, and religious subjects and, although many of the reforms proposed are highly desirable, it would take a century to carry them all into effect. In fact, it looks very much like a fraudulent appeal, meant merely to sow division in the ranks of the opposition. That the words of command should be Hungarian-the question which has been the subject of so long and bitter an agitation-is not conceded. The maintenance of the settlement of 1867 is taken as the basis for discussion, although a modification of it is recognized as admissible. The raising of the question of an extension of the suffrage in Hungary has led to its being raised in Austria also. Neither Austrians nor Hungarians can look forward to a quiet time.

Turkey.

The event which, of all others, is the most satisfactory, is the as sumption by the

cial control over three vilayets of Macedonia.

Powers of finan

This is an invaresisted by him

sion of the Sultan's rights of sovereignty and as such. But so enormous are the evils of that sovereignty, that it is no longer tolerable; and five Powers have laid aside their mutual jealousies and combined to demand that the Sultan should, if he remains a ruler at all, make his rule in some degree bearable. What success will attend their efforts, and how they will combine to coerce the Turk, should he prolong his resistance, the immediate future will reveal. But that the Powers have been able to go so far is of good augury.

Norway.

The separation of Norway and Sweden has been definitely accomplished. King Oscar has taken leave of his ungrateful subjects, and has persisted in his refusal to let any prince of his own family reign over them. The question then arose what form of government Norway should adopt, whether it should remain a Monarchy or become a Republic. A certain number of Norwegians, who were Republicans, wished to have the question referred by way of Referendum to the people. The Storthing, however, decided to offer the crown to Prince Charles, the second son of the Crown Prince of Denmark, but to make this offer subject to a direct vote of the people. The vote has taken place, and by an immense majority the offer of the Storthing has been confirmed. Another nation has been added to the list, and another King takes his place in the ranks of sovereign rulers.

Spain.

Yet another cabinet crisis has taken place in Spain. No sooner had M. Loubet departed than the

Premier resigned. It is hard for outsiders to understand the instability shown by these frequent changes, or the reason for them.

EARLY PERSECUTIONS
By Allard.

By his five-volume history of the persecutions of the early Christians, M. Paul Allard placed him. self well in the front rank of liv

ing historians, and won from the learned world a respectful attention which is too seldom, now-a-days, granted to Catholic scholars. The erudition, which was not exhausted in furnishing forth his monumental work, has now given us a second which in size only is inferior to the first. Though covering the same ground, it is not a repetition, or a summary, but the complement of the larger study.

In the present publication,* which consists of ten lectures delivered recently at the Catholic Institute, the learned professor presents, in all its splendor, the testimony to the divinity of Christianity which is contained in the history of the early martyrs in the Roman empire. Complete familiarity with all the information available for the subject, was but one of the qualifications demanded for the task of accurately and attractively placing before an audience a worthy tableau of this great fact. To condense within the compass of ten not very long chapters, all the material required to convey an adequate and real conception of a series of events, in which the central fact was constantly modified by the changing and shifting of locality, of time, and of the condition and quality of the chief actors, required a sure eye for the selection of representative elements out of an immense mass of material, and a large measure of artistic skill for their arrangement. M. Allard has proved equal to the work.

In an introductory chapter, on the expansion of Christianity in the Roman empire, he fixes the geographical and social milieu in which the bloody drama was played. Then he surveys the nature of the legislation which was enacted at different times, and from varying motives, by the persecutors. He next analyzes the chief causes of the persecuting fury, which he reduces to three popular prejudices, political prejudices, and the wretched personal passions of rulers.

After essaying a calculation of the number of the martyrs • Dix Leçons sur le Martyr, données à l'Institut Catholique de Paris. Par Paul Allard. Paris: Victor Lecoffre.

VOL. LXXX11-26