of charity and fairness. The remedy lies in the awakening of a sense of justice and Christian charity in men, in the realization by mankind of a higher purpose than the accumulation of dollars for the gratification of ambition or sensual appetite, in the restriction, by wise legislation and governmental measures, of injustice and oppression. There are many to whom such a remedy does not appeal, and hence they ignore the real causes of the condition of the classes, and would set up another cause, the remedy for which would lie within the power of the classes themselves.

Hindrances to Production. It must be said that, while population is ever increasing, the production of the necessaries of life, though at no time inadequate to supply the needs of mankind, may be hampered by several things, such as:

1. The absorption by private individuals of large areas of land for game preserves and parkways and the keeping of the same out of cultivation. Instances may be found in England and Ireland, where immense landed estates are held by families for generations, yielding little or nothing to the store that is needful for the sustenance of the nation.

2. The concentration of the productive forces in the production of commodities that gratify a passing fancy and are called for by luxury and extravagance. Such production does not add to the sum of the foodstuffs of the world.

3. The frequent limitation, by monopolies and combinations of capitalists, of the production of even the necessaries of life in order to keep up the prices.

4. The application of labor and capital to manufacturing industries rather than to agricultural industries. There has been in the United States a gradual falling off in the numbers engaged in agricultural pursuits as compared with all occupations during the past forty years.

The following table shows among all the occupations the percentage of those engaged in agricultural pursuits:

People are attracted to the large cities, centers of manufacturing industries, and they become so accustomed to the excitement and pleasure of city life that they cannot be diverted to agriculture. Such is the experience of the United States. Even the vast majority of the immigrants, who come in hundreds of thousands yearly to our shores, are dispersed among a few of the large centers of the manufacturing industries. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911, 64 per cent of the immigrants to this country went to New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey. (Cf. Annual Report, Dep't Com. and Lab., 1911, p. 171.)

Division of Labor.

(1) In the Nation. We can conceive a family living by itself segregated by long distances from all others. In such a family the various occupations necessary for the production of the various necessaries of life would be carried on by the members of the family. The procuring of food, the making of clothing, the construction of buildings, farming, hunting, fishing, would all be done by one or another member of the family.

If, however, other families should gather about the first and establish a community, a town, it would then be possible to have a division of the occupations among the members of the increased community according to the capacities manifested by each for some one of the necessary occupations. Thus, there would arise in the community a baker, a carpenter, a builder, a procurer and seller of game and fish, and what was accomplished in the first place by one family would now be done by separate individuals of the several families living together.

In this way would be brought about the first form of division of labor into different trades and occupations. This division of labor is made possible by the coöperation of all the members of the several families. What was impossible when the family lived isolated and alone now becomes feasible where many are gathered together in a community. The baker who employs his whole time in baking bread must get what other food he

needs, must get his clothing, his house, from the labor of some other members of the community in which he lives. And so for all the other workers. Each depends on the coöperation of others.

Let the members of the community increase in numbers, and it will be readily seen that this division of occupations will expand to an even greater extent, until the smallest details of labor may become the sole occupation of many individuals, and the diversity of the special trades may become indefinite.

This division of labor applies to the whole state or country, and even to the whole world. Because of the internal trade within the state or country, people of various sections of the country are enabled to apply themselves to some particular industry to the exclusion of other industries. Because of international commerce, peoples of various parts of the world may apply themselves to a restricted number and kind of industries. Thus, there is a country-wide and a world-wide division of labor.

(2) In the Workshop.

There is a second kind of division of labor which applies to the workshop. Production may be carried on on a small scale, as is done by individual producers who have but a moderate capital to invest in business; or it may be carried on on a large scale, where, for example, many capitalists pool their capital and invest in some business. In a small business, one man may have to handle the article which is produced from its inception in the raw state to its completion as a finished product. Where the production is carried on on a large scale and many laborers are employed, the labor of producing the manufactured article may be divided among a dozen or more laborers.

It is only when there is large production, or production on a large scale, that it will be profitable to carry out this workshop division of labor.

(Illustrate by describing the work done in a hat factory, in an iron foundry, in a shoe factory.)

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Division of Labor. Division of labor, whether in its first form or in its second, has its advantages and its disadvantages.

(1) In the Nation. In its first form, when taken in its broadest aspect, it enables the people of one country or of one section of a country to apply themselves to the development of the peculiar advantages proper to their own locality. Thus, they may excel in mining or in agriculture or in manufacturing industry, and, applying themselves more or less exclusively to one of these occupations, may rely on other countries or other portions of their own country to supply them with the products of other occupations.

In the United States, agriculture is the chief occupation in the Mississippi Valley, mining in the Rocky Mountain region, manufactures in New England, each of these sections affording special natural facilities for its peculiar occupation, and the mechanism of commercial exchange which exists between all sections of the country obviates the inconveniences which might arise from this exclusive application to one occupation.

A serious disadvantage may arise to a country from this division of labor. In time of war, a country that applied itself exclusively to manufactures could not have food enough to live on if an effective blockade were established around its borders, and it would soon be starved into submission. An agricultural country under similar circumstances would suffer from the lack of manufactured articles. The United States would have little trouble in this regard, but some other countries are not so fortunate. Thus, diversity of occupations is advised in order to supply all the needs of a country at all times. (2) In the Workshop. When considered in its second form, as found in the workshop, division of labor has the following advantages:

1. Complicated labor is broken up into very simple and mechanical movements easy to execute.

2. Portions of the divided labor may be assigned to each laborer in proportion to his capacity.

3. Great dexterity is acquired by the constant repetition of the same act.

4. There is economy of time.

5. There is economy of tools.

6. The period of apprenticeship is shortened. Less time is required to learn a small detail than a complete trade.

The disadvantages of this second division of labor are:

1. The degradation of the laborer, who becomes a mere machine.

2. The great dependence of the laborer, who knows no entire trade, but merely a small part of a trade. He will find it difficult to get employment at any other branch of his trade. Gide, Principles of Political Economy.)

(Cf.

These disadvantages are offset by the great advantages that are found in division of labor.

Machinery. In 1769, James Watt took out the first patent for the steam engine, and since that time there has been a great revolution in labor. Machinery has been introduced in agriculture, in manufactures, in transportation, in mining, in every branch of production where hand labor can be employed.

The capitalist views with joy the advent of machinery, while the laboring class looks upon it with hatred and anger, rising up in riot at times and destroying the newly set up machines. This happened in England when the spinners and weavers found themselves on the point of being superseded by machines. Advantages of Machinery. Machinery has its advantages and its disadvantages. The advantages are:

1. The employment of machinery increases production. One machine is able frequently to do the work of three, four, or even ten men, and there naturally will be an increase in the product. 2. It brings about regularity and precision of work. No matter how diligent or how skilled a hand workman may become, there is always the chance of deviation from the perfection of the design intended. A machine works with absolute precision and turns out identical products.

3. It saves time. Among handworkers much time is lost,