3. That the owner of land should be entitled only to whatever his labor and capital can produce from the land.

The principles advocated by George would lead to Socialism pure and simple. They postulate the cessation of the private right of property in land. According to this school, individual property right in land is an injustice. Land must become nationalized. "This is the remedy for the unjust and unequal distribution of wealth . . . and for all the evils which flow from it: we must make land common property." (Progress and Poverty, Bk. VI, ch. 2.)

Labor, according to George, is the only legitimate title to private property. (Ib., Bk. VII, ch. 1.)

Rent, to which, as will be seen later (p. 394), the landowner has a just right, would be confiscated without compensation by the state. "Rent is a robbery." Rent, the creation of the whole community, necessarily belongs to the whole community." (Ib. Bk. VII, ch. 3; Bk. VIII, ch. 2. Cf. H. Pesch, S.J., Lehrbuch der Nationalökonomie, I, p. 189.)

(2) State Socialists." State Socialism," says M. de Mun, "is a social conception in which the state, the central power, possesses and administers directly all the great financial and industrial enterprises of the country, directs all its social institutions, becomes the holder of all the resources of the nation, and in turn itself provides for all the moral and material needs of the citizens, becoming thus the universal treasurer and banker, the general agent of transportation and commerce, the exclusive distributor of labor, of wealth, of means of education, of employments and of aid, in a word, the promoter and the regulator of all natural activity." (In Antoine, Cours d'économie sociale, p. 216.)

State Socialists believe indeed in private property, but with them the right of private property is a creation of the state, not a natural right. What the state has given the state can take away. The capitalist owner is but a public steward and may be removed at the will of the state.

The defenders of State Socialism would take a course midway

between Socialism and Individualism. They hold that the state is able by its laws to bring adequate relief to all the evil conditions that exist in society. They would leave out religion from every effort to alleviate the sufferings of the masses.

State Socialism errs in denying the natural right of private property, and in claiming that it is but a concession of the state. The individual and the family with their essential rights are older than the state, and among these rights is that of private property." (Cathrein, Kirchen Lexicon, "Sociale Frage," p. 442.)

It errs, moreover, in believing that the state alone can cure the ills of society. It can do much, but its efforts will prove abortive unless it has the concurrent aid of the Church in instilling the principles of Religion into the minds of men.

(3) Evangelical Socialists. The Evangelical or Christian Socialists would seek the reform of society through the spread of the Gospel and the influence of Christian teaching. They would engage the coöperation of all religions.

(4) Anarchists. - Anarchism, like Socialism, seeks the abolition of the present order of things. It would replace the existing social system by absolute liberty and equality. When all authority and class distinctions and property rights have been destroyed, they maintain, men will live together in peaceful amity and perfect accord. (Cf. Cathrein-Gettelmann, Socialism, P. 14.)

The principal exponents of Anarchism are Bakunin (d. 1876), Prince Krapotkin, Eliseus Reclus, John Most, John Mackay. The professed ultimate object of Anarchism is the well-being of all, perfect equality, the reign of pure reason and liberty.

The immediate objects are the destruction of individual property rights, the spoliation of capitalists, the burning of all title deeds, the abolition of authority, the replacing of actual society by a federation of groups.

The means advocated by the more radical anarchists are dynamite, the dagger, the bomb.

The character of the anarchist may be gathered from the

following extract from the Catechism of Anarchy composed by Bakunin:

"1. The anarchist bears a sacred character. There is in him nothing merely personal, be it interest, or feeling, or property, or even his name. By one single object, by one single thought, by one single passion is his whole being absorbed; namely, Revolution.

66 2.

He has broken away absolutely in the uttermost depths of his being from all existing civil order, from all the civilized world.

3. He knows but one science, destruction; destruction is the aim of all his studies.

4. The anarchist contemns public opinion; he is filled with a like hatred for the existing moral law. In his eyes, whatever aids the triumph of revolution is lawful; whatever hinders it, criminal." (In Antoine, Cours d'économie sociale, p. 212.)

The Catholic School; Representatives. The principal representatives of the Catholic School are: in France, Cardinal Langénieux, De Cabrières, Elie Blanc, De Pascal, Count de Mun, Lemire, Garnier, Naudet, Ch. Antoine; in England, Cardinal Manning, Bishop Bagshaw of Nottingham, Devas, W. S. Lilly; in Italy, Liberatore, Steccanella, the Civilta Cattolica, Nicotra, Burri, Toniolo, Soderini, the writings of the Catholic Congresses of Milan (1893) and of Rome (1893), the Rivista Internazionale, the Rassegna Sociale; in Germany, Von Ketteler, Korum, Fischer, Winterer, Hitze, G. von Hertling, G. Ratzinger, the Stimmen aus Maria-Laach, A. Lehmkuhl, H. Pesch, Cathrein, Th. Meyer, Hammerstein; in Belgium, Doutreloux, Pottier, A. Verhaegen, Helleputte, Boussoul, Levie; in Switzerland, Decurtins, Weiss, O. P., the University of Fribourg; in Spain, Cardinal Sancha y Nervas, Vicent, Cepeda, Orti y Lara, Escartin, Fernandez de Castro, Lopez; in Austria, Costa-Rossetti, Biederlack, G. Kolb, Stentrup.

In the United States, conditions are not the same as in European countries. Here religious toleration exists and practical equality obtains among all denominations. Hence there have

not been the incentives to induce Catholics to unite in any specially concerted action. Still the influence of Catholic teaching is spread in the pulpit through the preaching of the Catholic hierarchy and priesthood, in the press through the many Catholic magazines and newspapers, in society in general through the increase of Catholic societies.

The Catholic School has grown considerably during the past fifty years, especially in Europe. The movement was started in Germany by Bishop von Ketteler, of Mainz, through his many writings, and especially his book Die Arbeiterfrage und das Christenthum (1864). In France the most ardent propagator of the school is Count de Mun, whose writings and speeches have done much to spread the movement. The Encyclical Rerum Novarum, of Leo XIII, since its publication in 1891, has become the main source of the principles of the Catholic School.

Position of the Catholic School. The Catholic School deals broadly with the whole social question, and does not limit its investigation to merely economic subjects. The latter are so intimately interwoven with the general principles of the school, that it is almost impossible to confine one's self strictly to purely economic matters without entering in some detail into a review of the broader subject of social science as understood in the Catholic policy. We may be pardoned, therefore, for the detail with which the subject is treated.

Cause of Social Evils. The evil under which society is at present suffering is a religious and a moral evil.

The source of the social unrest is not to be found in the actual condition of the laboring class as compared with past times. The general condition of the working class is better to-day than it has ever been in previous times, a fact admitted by many economic writers and substantiated by statistics.

A cause of disquiet does lie in the fact that in recent times the development of distribution has not kept pace with production. Production has increased immensely owing to the introduction of machinery and the application of modern methods in all industrial concerns. The capitalist is enabled to reap immense

returns, while the wage earner has not been proportionately bettered by the advance of capitalistic production. The individual is driven out by the gigantic corporations that seek to absorb all smaller independent businesses. He cannot compete with the opulent trusts and combinations and is forced to accept and conform to the prices set by them, with the almost certain result that he will be obliged to close his business.

Machine work has in many industries taken the place of manual work; the machine drives out the smaller artisan, and the latter is forced to give up his freedom and independence and to depend for his subsistence on the wage offered by the capitalist.

The laborer received a lesser wage in former times, but he was sure of his wage. In more recent times, the laborer is not always certain of his living. He cannot count on the certainty of his weekly wage. Overproduction will cause his hours of work and remuneration to be curtailed; the invention of a new machine may throw him out of work; he may have to change his domicile to seek work in more favorable localities.

Such are some of the reasons for the unrest existing to-day in society. They are economic reasons. But there are also reasons of a spiritual nature.

Selfishness has developed greatly among the members of society. The doctrines of the Liberal School, the principles of individualism and free untrammeled competition, have for long held implicit sway in the world, and the result has been to generate a struggle for existence in which each one seeks his own welfare at the expense of his neighbor if necessary, or at least with a total disregard for the interests of others, and looks with displeasure upon conditions that enable others to surpass him.

To this may be added the desire to rise above a condition of ease and comfort, and the ambition to acquire wealth, in order to share in the life of luxury of which so many examples are given by the very wealthy.

These are some of the causes which arouse a spirit of unrest