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speak for themselves. Every reader will form his own judgment. Baron Pelet asks the same questions that we have done he thus ventures a vague and undecided reply.

"It may be asked, 'What impression will be produced on the reader's mind by the documents I here lay before him? What opinion will be formed of Napoleon and his system of administration, by the observations made by him in the Council of State?' The reply is, that unquestionably the same opinion which the public have already formed will be thereby confirmed. They will recognise in Napoleon's character a mixture of impetuosity and trickery, half French half Italian, but in which impetuosity predominated; while it was modified by such a decided bearing towards absolute power, that it could not fail, on the one hand, to deaden all the internal energies of his country, and, on the other, eventually to rouse foreign nations into resistance.

"He stimulated the ambition of every class of the community, by the distribution of an immense number of employments, promotions, and honorary distinctions, and thus set agoing an immoderate love of excitement, with a feverish desire of change, and he kept up these propensities by the daily exhibition of kings dethroned and dynasties overturned. Finally, he rendered the task of his successors an exceedingly difficult one for a long time to come. For a nation familiarised with wars and conquests cannot really subside into peaceful habits.She recalls only the glory, and takes no count of the cost: she feels, as it were, humiliated, from ceasing to humiliate

others, and her restless energies, finding no employment abroad, naturally seek for vent in domestic commotions.

"Napoleon, looking down from the vast height which he had reached, thought the rest of mankind smaller than they really were; and this the cause of his downfall. He raised up against himself, by the mere abuse of power, not only sovereigns and whole populations, but even his own country, in which he had nurtured the most dangerous enemies.

"It is not a little strange, that while conquerors will go every length for glory, and do any thing to gain the public applause, there should lie a thorough contempt of mankind at the bottom of their hearts. It may happen that too good an opinion of the world will prove occasionally fatal to the head of a government, while too low an opinion may become equally destructive to his authority.

"The true glory of Napoleon consists in his having suppressed anarchy, in having rallied round him all parties in the state, in having organised such a powerful administration, that France, during fifteen years, submitted to the guidance of his powerful hand, as if the whole nation had been but one man; in giving his country a code of civil laws more perfect than any which it had possessed before; and in being laborious, indefatigable, and unceasingly occupied with the cares of go

vernment.

"What might not Napoleon have effected, with all these great qualities, had he employed them for the purpose of governing France in peace, and in studying to bestow upon her a constitution and a state of manners calculated to prevent the recurrence of fresh political tempests!"

PROFESSOR BUTT'S INTRODUCTORY LECTURE.*

WE have read this lecture of Mr. Butt's with much pleasure, and after having perused it carefully, can predict with confidence, that the public will not be disappointed in the expectations which they formed when he was selected to fill the office which he now holds.

It is a peculiarity of the professorship of Political Economy, not only in our University, but also, we believe, in both the great English Universities, that it can be held by the same person for no longer period than five years. In this arrangement,

connected with the peculiar state and nature of this science, there are some important advantages. It prevents the opinion of any one person from exercising (at least through the medium of the professorship) too great an influence on the public mind. The science is still in its infancy, and is daily undergoing material changes, and receiving fresh improvements. Were the same professor to continue in office during his life, he might not be very willing to adopt and disseminate those improvements. He would probably hold to the doctrines which he first

* An Introductory Lecture delivered before the University of Dublin, in Hilary Term, 1837, by Isaac Butt, Esq., LL.B., Archbishop Whately's Professor of Political Economy. 8vo. William Curry, jun. and Co. Dublin. 1837.

promulgated, and refuse to declare from the professor's chair, that any thing which he taught in preceding years from the same authoritative position, was erroneous. He would not unnaturally suppose it improbable, that after having made such an admission, his future lectures would be listened to with much reverence. The learned might esteem him more for his candid confession of past mistakes, but the unlearned (and it is to such, that his lectures must be principally addressed) would consider him merely as a man, who, in his peculiar profession, had all his life gone astray. This fleeting professorship is therefore not an unwise establishment, when the science is rather to be investigated than to be taught.

But it has this disadvantage, that it places the discrepancies between the professors of the same science in a most prominent point of view, so that to the malicious, each professor seems to do little more than to demolish the fabric raised by his predecessor, and on its ruins to erect a fragile superstructure, the subversion of which may afford occupation and triumph to his Thus our lectures may appear to afford no progressive instruction, but to be "never ending, still beginning, fighting still, and still destroying."

successor.

For this sarcasm, however, Mr. Butt's lecture affords no real ground. He is careful to have the foundation sound, but he does not, therefore, reject all that has been said before. He selects, and in our opinion, with considerable judgment, the most correct and consistent opinions and definitions of the modern economists, to which he adds value, by the clearness of his explanations, and strength, by the compactness of his arguments. In other cases he boldly takes an original view of the subject, lays down his position with a clearness which cannot be mistaken, and supports it with reasoning, which, in strength and closeness, is scarcely inferior to mathematical demonstration. We shall endeavour to give the public a faint outline of his Introductory Lecture.

Mr. Butt commences with a few striking observations on the hostility which some bear to this science, and gives a very ingenious analysis of its source; and ascribes it principally to three causes, on one (the last) of which he makes the following just remarks: "There is a class of persons, to whom

political economy, no doubt, has proved a peculiar inconvenience; and this class comprises within it the individuals best adapted by nature for making a noise, especially if it be a senseless one.

"It is unfortunately true, that a certain kind of popular talent may exist, without the possession of very great reasoning powers; and those who have gained a reputation by the one, are naturally jealous of a science which unrelentingly detects their deficiency in the other. You will readily understand why some persons resent as a most unfair and unwarrantable interference, the introduction of strict reasoning into subjects which they are very willing to regard as made by long prescription, the exclusive property of the declaimer.”—Page 11.

There is much force in the manner in which Mr. Butt exposes that undefined feeling which leads many to dread that the result of their investigation in political economy, or in any other science, may lead to results unfavorable to religion. He not only proves the unreasonableness of this feeling, but states and proves a proposition which it directly contradicts, viz. that "there is no moral obligation upon a rational creature to abstain from employing his faculties in any investigation to which they are adapted."

We may, however, remark, that exclusive attention to any one science has a tendency to weaken the impression which religious truths leave on the mind. But when this occurs, it ought to be attributed rather to the neglect of religion which is culpable, than to the study which but for that effect would not have led to any fatal result, nor incurred any blame. What human study is more calculated than anatomy to demonstrate the infinite power and wisdom and goodness of God, and to fill us with reverence and gratitude for their effects so wonderfully displayed in our composition? and yet too exclusive attention to that science has frequently led to atheism. In his study of the creature, man forgot the creator; he became at last so accustomed to the wonderful mechanism of the

human frame, that the prospective arrangements of divine wisdom appeared to be natural and necessary combinations. Thus, a tooth formed to tear meat, or a claw to procure it, appeared to infer a stomach fitted to digest it, by the same kind of necessity that leads us to mathematical conclusions, and seemed to require neither a creator nor a cause. Still the study of anatomy is

no less useful and necessary, and such examples should teach us, not that we ought to dread any study as dangerous, but that we ought to pursue it in a proper spirit.

Mr. Butt next alludes briefly to the opinion which many entertain, that political economy is a selfish, heartless science, which, "in the sternness of its paradoxical conclusions, contradicts not only the maxims of common sense, and the lessons of experience, but every generous emotion, and every charitable sympathy of the heart." He trusts to the increasing influence of truth to dispel this illusion, without the necessity of any particular analysis of its cause. We fear, however, that this ill opinion of political economy has received no small countenance from the conduct of the English poor-law commissioners. The alteration lately made in the law was generally thought to be at best a measure of necessary harsh ness, but it became almost intolerable when administered by certain ultraeconomists, who seemed to feel very little repugnance to stifling every generous feeling of the soul, in obedience to the dictates of a hard-hearted philosophy which pronounced to willing disciples, that it was essential to the prosperity of England that her inhabitants should be starved, and by no means should be permitted to increase and multiply. To the English labourer those commissioners appeared to be sent on earth to fulfil the prophecy of St. Paul, "In the latter times some shall depart from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits, and to doctrines of devils, speaking lies in hypocrisy, having their consciences seared with a hot iron, forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats."-1 Tim. iv.

Mr. Butt is happy in the manner in which he exhibits the phenomena which political economy is called upon to investigate, and which are so familiar, and of such constant occurrence, that, until our attention is particularly directed to them, they appear to require no investigation. He next defines and explains some of the principal terms in the science, such as "wealth," " utility," "value," "production," and gives his reasons for adopting or rejecting the divisions and definitions laid down by other writers.

We were pleased to find that he concurs with the most judicious economists in rejecting the old distinction

between productive and unproductive labour; and in our opinion, he excels them far in the clearness with which he refutes the arguments by which it was supported, and explains the nature and origin of the mistake which led to the distinction. By defining production to be the creation of utility, he abolishes this error for ever.

We extract the following passage as an excellent illustration of the importance of Mr. Butt's definition, and at the same time, a fair specimen of his style:

"You will bear in mind, that any creation of utility is production. I have already called your attention to the transfer of commodities from a place where they are not useful to the place where they are. This is a very important kind of production, and one in which, at this moment, multitudes of labourers are engaged all over the world. But this is a species of production which, except in its very great operations, we are inclined to overlook. The bringing of coals from the depths of the pits at Whitehaven to your grate, is certainly a very great creation of utility. All persons would say at once, that the raising of these coals to the mouth of the pit was production; but some, perhaps, might stop here without the slightest reason, and not concede that the conveying of them another stage of their journey, that across the sea, was productive; but I see no distinction between the nature of one and the other, or between either of them and the carting of them from the quay to the coal cellar. But if they ended their travels even here, they might just as well have remained and the act of your servant, when he one hundred fathoms under Whitehaven ; carries them from the cellar to the grate, is just as much an act of production, and the same in kind, as the labour of the miners, or the services of the crew of the collier, or the drivers of the coal dray."Pages 60, 61.

Those who regard production as the creation of value, cannot clearly apply their definition to Mr. Butt's example, How does the useful act of bringing coals to the fire improve their value, i. e. their power of procuring other commodities in exchange. In general, those who take value into their notion of production, are apt to regard all labour as unproductive, where a further exchange is not necessary after that labour has been performed. We think the definition given by Mr. Butt, therefore, possesses the advantage of explaining, with ease, cases which, on

the common definition, must occasion the greatest perplexity, at the same time that it is more conformable to the common idea attached to the word.

answer.

We have, however, very strong doubts whether he is equally correct in excluding the idea of value from his definition of wealth. It leads to many questions which it will be difficult to We must rank wealth under the category of quantity. How is this quantity to be measured? As an article of wealth, which is a leg of mutton or a valuable diamond ring to be esteemed the greater quantity? We must not refer to their relative scarcities to remove the difficulty introduced by Mr. Butt's definition, for he supports his definition principally by this argument, that it does not ever involve the consideration of the scarcity or abundance of any article.

Besides, if the scarcity or value of any commodity must be taken into consideration in order to estimate its quantity as an article of wealth, it will follow that all the wealth in the world, which possess no value, are not equal to a single pin, and therefore it was unnecessary to alter the established definition to include such commodities within it. We see no advantage to be gained by the change. Referring to Mr. Butt's admirably accurate definition of Political Economy, page 40, we would ask, is human agency any way concerned in the production or distribution of those articles of wealth which possess no value?

With the above trifling exception, we concur in every proposition of Mr. Butt's, and feel assured that his lectures will do much to settle the science on a firmer and surer basis. He possesses, in an eminent degree, those qualities which are essential to an improver of the science. He evidently has a very accurate comprehension of the meaning and consequences of every proposition which he lays down, that seems to promise that he will be bold without rashness, and that he will be original without falling into paradox. His style is uncommonly clear and forcible, and well suited to philosophical investigations. His reasoning is close and powerful, and as abstract as the occasion requires, or perhaps would admit, without impairing its perspicuity.— Many of his propositions are stated in such a manner, as to make them equally capable of being applied to other subjects, so that his lectures are instructive beyond the truths of political economy contained in them. A lively and sarcastic humour frequently appears, which, while it amuses the reader, serves to expose still more clearly the errors which it encounters, and almost places them in the rank of those practical absurdities which so often form amusing anecdotes. We leave his lecture with regret, and an anxiety that we may be shortly called to notice some larger work on the same subject by the same author.

GALLERY OF ILLUSTRIOUS IRISHMEN.-NO. VIII.

SHERIDAN.-PART II.

RICHARD B. SHERIDAN filled so prominent a place in the public eye, and has left an impression so combined and striking, that it is not an easy task to satisfy the expectation of the multitude by an adequate sketch of his life. We say a sketch, because it is in this the difficulty lies. To detail the particulars of a life at length, is comparatively easy. Where all is preserved, the reader may be safely left to the estimate of his own judgment. And if

his idea thus formed does not attain to much truth of resemblance, he will at least satisfy himself. Far different is his office who has to contrast, to select and generalize a vast and copious detail into a small compass, so as to present to all, that which every man is disposed to find for himself. He has to deal with preconceptions, in which a more deliberate view of the subject will find much to correct. He will have to meet the prepossessions of party feel

There are two methods of representing character; by the actual detail of acts, words and circumstances, or by the tracing of moral and intellectual workings. The first is the most easy and popular, but it requires amplitude and abundance. The second is difficult and at best liable to question; yet it has at least the advantage of brevity. There is a third very common method; portraiture, much used among the writers of the last century, by the mere enumeration of mental features. But this presupposes knowledge in the reader, and, at best, is mostly empirical.

ing-the jealous pride of kindred; and he must, if he performs his duty, discover moral peculiarities, which shall at first view seem more refined than just. Such has been the peculiar nicety of the effort we have taken upon us, in aiming to trace to their source the peculiar features of Sheridan. We may now proceed with much less precision or care. There are four distinct stages in his career; the history of his early life-his dramatic successes-his parliamentary life -and the melancholy down-hill course of his latter days. Each of these offers the occasion which our brief space requires, to present distinctly, the different aspects in which his character may be viewed. But let us here observe that the relative interest of these is very different. We have laboured to be distinct on the first, because, if utility be regarded, it is most important. The second we shall continue with brevity, in compliance with the taste of the hour; yet, distinctly, for it is as a dramatic writer alone that Sheridan can obtain a place in the memory of the next generation. His wit has lost its flavour, in the thousandth repetitions; his social fascination can only be conceived by those who have felt it; his virtues and failings lose themselves in the common features of humanity; the triumphs of the social hour are transient. The orator's memory, too, must rest on what has been preserved of his eloquence. As an orator we cannot rate him at the highest, unless by lowering the praise of eloquence. As a statesman Sheridan had no pretension; and he who would represent in a life, the history of that eventful period in which he lived, must weigh his powers for the delineation of the mind of Burke. But it is as a dramatist that Sheridan must take his place among the illustrious of every age.

As we have in our first part taken some pains to trace with accuracy the moral features of his character, we must, before we proceed, recall to the reader's mind the sum of our infe

rences.

He was by nature intelligent and vivacious, social and generous, aspiring and sensitive, indolent and a lover of pleasure. He had keen observation, and ready sagacity, a lively sense of the characteristic and humorous, and a clear sound understanding. Of imagination he had little ; of fancy

VOL. IX.

much; but was little endowed with the more philosophical properties of analysis or discursive reason. All these remarks are to be illustrated in the whole of his history, without any undue refinement; for we have aimed not to anatomise character, but to present a faithful and obvious likeness. From these dispositions the intelligent reader will trace with ease the opposite courses of his conduct. His ambition conquered his indolence, and this in turn combined with his love of pleasure, to subdue his prudence. His sensitive jealousy caused injustice and alienation, which his generosity and kindliness of nature still rectified and reconciled. Regardless of money, except as a means of present gratification, he was as willing to pay as to spend ; but improvidence led him to contract engagements beyond his means. An anecdote is related by one of his biographers (we think Dr. Watkins) very illustrative of his indolence. He had been so severely handled in a libel on the subject of his affair with Mr. Mathews, in some pamphlet or obscure provincial paper, that he resolved upon a reply. But, thinking it fair to give the same publicity to the attack as to his defence, he sent the libel to Mr. Woodfall's well-known journal, requesting its insertion, and promising his reply in a few days. It was inserted in the Public Advertiser; Sheridan's versatility was, however, in the mean time, caught away into the whirl of some fresh excitement, and the reply became a needful but unattractive task. Day after day past in procrastinating intentions; Mr. Woodfall made repeated and urgent applications for the meditated reply, and was as constantly assured that it should be ready on the following day. But days grew into weeks until the time was past when it could appear to any purpose.

We may regard the period at which we are now arrived, as the happiest of Sheridan's life. Adorned by the most flattering successes; blessed in the object of his affections; cheered on by the acclamations of the world, and acknowledged by the companionship of the great and the good. His affections were not yet impaired by the dissipations of life: he had not yet been diverted from the course which was native to his genius; hope, ever the companion of youthful ambition, opened before him a career in which he might not unreasonably look for

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