theology from the rationalistic toils into which it had fallen. Although rationalism is of late represented by Hase and Strauss, by Biedermann and Lepsius, we may now speak of a

Third Division-and in this division we may put the names of Neander and Tholuck, Twesten and Nitzsch, Müller and Luthardt, Dorner and Philippi, Ebrard and Thomasius, Lange and Kahnis, all of them exponents of a far more pure and evangelical theology than was common in Germany a century ago.

3. Among theologians of views diverse from the prevailing Protestant faith, may be mentioned:

(a) Bellarmine (1542-1621), the Roman Catholic.

Besides Bellarmine, "the best controversial writer of his age" (Bayle), the Roman Catholic Church numbers among its noted modern theologians:- Petavius (15831652), whose dogmatic theology Gibbon calls "a work of incredible labor and compass;" Melchior Canus (1523-1560), an opponent of the Jesuits and of their scholastic method; Bossuet (1627-1704), who idealized Catholicism in his Exposition of Doctrine, and attacked Protestantism in his History of Variations of Protestant Churches; Jansen (1585-1638), who attempted, in opposition to the Jesuits, to reproduce the theology of Augustine, and who had in this the powerful assistance of Pascal (1623-1662). Jansenism, so far as the doctrines of grace are concerned, but not as respects the sacraments, is virtual Protestantism within the Roman Catholic Church. Moehler's Symbolism, Perrone's Prelectiones Theologica, and Hurter's Compendium Theologia Dogmaticæ are the latest and most approved expositions of Roman Catholic doctrine.

(b) Arminius (1560-1609), the opponent of predestination.

Among the followers of Arminius (1560–1609) must be reckoned Episcopius (1583-1643), who carried Arminianism to almost Pelagian extremes; Hugo Grotius (1553-1645), the jurist and statesman, author of the governmental theory of the atonement; and Limborch (1633-1712), the most thorough expositor of the Arminian doctrine.

(c) Laelius Socinus (1525-1562), and Faustus Socinus (1539-1604), the leaders of the modern Unitarian movement.

The works of Laelius Socinus (1525-1562) and his nephew, Faustus Socinus (1539-1604), constituted the beginnings of modern Unitarianism. Laelius Socinus was the reformer and Faustus Socinus was the theologian; or, as Baumgarten-Crusius expresses it, "the former was the spiritual founder of Socinianism, and the latter the founder of the sect." Their writings are collected in the Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum. The Racovian Catechism, taking its name from the Polish town Racow, contains the most succinct exposition of their views.

4. British theology, represented by :

(a) The Baptists, John Bunyan (1628-1688), John Gill (1697-1771), and Andrew Fuller (1754-1815).

Some of the best British theology is Baptist. Among John Bunyan's works, we may notice his "Gospel Truths Opened." Macaulay calls Milton and Bunyan the two great creative minds of England during the latter part of the 17th century. John Gill's "Body of Practical Divinity" shows much ability, although the Rabbinical learning of the author occasionally displays itself in a curious exegesis. Andrew Fuller's "Letters on Systematic Divinity" is a brief compend of theology. His treatises upon special doctrines are marked by sound judgment and clear insight. They justify the epithets which Robert Hall, one of the greatest of Baptist preachers, gives him: "sagacious,” “luminous," "powerful."

(b) The Puritans, John Owen (1616-1683), Richard Baxter (1615–1691), John Howe (1630-1705), and Thomas Ridgeley (1666–1734).

Of the Puritan theologians the Encyc. Brit. remarks: "As a theological thinker and writer, John Owen holds his own distinctly defined place among those Titanic intellects with which the age abounded. Surpassed by Baxter in point and pathos, by Howe in (magination and the higher philosophy, he is unrivalled in his power of unfolding the rich meanings of Scripture. In his writings he was preeminently the great theologian."

Baxter wrote a "Methodus Theologiæ," and a "Catholic Theology"; John Howe is chiefly known by his "Living Temple"; Thomas Ridgeley by his "Body of Divinity."

(c) The Scotch Presbyterians, Thomas Boston (1676-1732), John Dick (1764-1833), and Thomas Chalmers (1780-1847).

Of the Scotch Presbyterians, Boston is the most voluminous, Dick the most calm and fair, Chalmers the most fervid and popular.

(d) The Methodists, John Wesley (1703-1791), and Richard Watson (1781-1833).

Of the Methodists, John Wesley's doctrine is presented in "Christian Theology," collected from his writings by the Rev. Thornley Smith. The great Methodist text-book, however, is the Institutes of Watson, who systematized and expounded the Wesleyan theology. Pope, a recent English theologian, follows Watson's modified and improved Arminianism (while Whedon and Raymond, recent American writers, hold rather to a radical and extreme Arminianism).

(e) The English Churchmen, Richard Hooker (1553–1600), Gilbert Burnet (1643-1715), and John Pearson (1613-1686).

The English church has produced no great systematic theologian (see reasons assigned in Dorner, Gesch. prot. Theologie, 470). The "judicious" Hooker is still its greatest theological writer, although his work is only on "Ecclesiastical Polity." Bishop Burnet is the author of the "Exposition of the XXXIX Articles," and Bishop Pearson of the "Exposition of the Creed." Both these are common English text-books. A recent "Compendium of Dogmatic Theology," by Litton, shows a tendency to return from the usual Arminianism of the Anglican church to the old Augustinianism.

5. American theology, running in two lines:

(a) The Reformed system of Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758), modified successively by Joseph Bellamy (1719-1790), Samuel Hopkins (1721-1803), Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), Nathaniel Emmons (1745-1840), Leonard Woods (1774-1854), C. G. Finney (1792-1875), and N. W. Taylor (1786– 1858). Calvinism, as thus modified, is often called the New England, or New School, theology.

Jonathan Edwards, one of the greatest of metaphysicians and theologians, thought too little of nature, and tended to Berkeleyanism as applied to mind. He regarded the chief good as happiness-a form of sensibility. Virtue was voluntary choice of this good. Hence union with Adam in acts and exercises was sufficient. This God's will made identity of being with Adam. This led to the exercise-system of Hopkins and Emmons, on the one hand, and to Bellamy's and Dwight's denial of any imputation of Adam's sin or of inborn depravity, on the other-in which last denial agree many other New England theologians who reject the exercise-scheme, as for example, Strong, Tyler, Smalley, Burton, Woods, and Park. Dr. N. W. Taylor added a more distinctly Arminian element, the power of contrary choice-and with this tenet of the New Haven theology, Charles G. Finney, of Oberlin, substantially agreed. Thus from certain principles admitted by Edwards, who held in the main to an Old School theology, the New School theology has been gradually developed.

(b) The older Calvinism, represented by R. J. Breckinridge (born 1800), Charles Hodge (1797-1878), E. J. Baird, and William G. T. Shedd (born 1820); the two former favoring, and the two latter opposing, antecedent imputation. All these, however, as holding to views of human depravity and divine grace more nearly conformed to the doctrine of Augustine and Calvin, are distinguished from the New England theologians and their followers by the popular title of Old School,

Old School theology has for its characteristic tenet the guilt of inborn depravity. But among those who hold this view, some are federalists and creationists, and regard imputation as the cause of this depravity. Such are the Princeton theologians generally, including Dr. Charles Hodge, the father, and Dr. A. A. Hodge, the son, together with R. J. Breckinridge, the brothers Alexander, and Thornwell of South Carolina. Among those who hold to the Old School doctrine of the guilt of inborn depravity, however, there are others who are traducians, and who regard imputation as consequent upon corruption and not as antecedent to it. Baird's “Elohim Revealed" and Shedd's Essay on “Original Sin" (Sin a Nature, and that Nature Guilt) represent this realistic conception of the relation of the race to its first father.

On the history of Systematic Theology in general, see Hagenbach, History of Doctrine (from which many of the facts above given are taken), and Shedd, History of Doctrine; also, Ebrard, Dogmatik, 1: 44-100; Kahnis, Dogmatik, 1: 15–128; Hase, Hutterus Redivivus, 24-52. On the history of New England Theology, see Fisher, Discussions and Essays, 285-354. On Edwards's tendency to idealism, see Sanborn, in Journ. Spec. Philos., Oct., 1883: 401-420.

IV. ORDER OF TREATMENT IN SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.

1.

Various methods of arranging the topics of a theological system. (a) The Analytic method of Calixtus begins with the assumed end of all things, blessedness, and thence passes to the means by which it is secured. (b) The Trinitarian method of Leydecker and Martensen regards Christian doctrine as a manifestation successively of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. (c) The Federal method of Cocceius, Witsius, and Boston treats theology under the two covenants. (d) The Anthropological method of Chalmers and Rothe. The former begins with the Disease of Man and passes to the Remedy; the latter divides his Dogmatik into the Consciousness of Sin and the Consciousness of Redemption. (e) The Christological method of Hase, Thomasius and Andrew Fuller treats of God, man, and sin, as presuppositions of the person and work of Christ. Mention may also be made of (ƒ) The Historical method, followed by Ursinus, and adopted in Jonathan Edwards's History of Redemption; and (g) The Allegorical method of Dannhauer, in which man is described as a wanderer, life as a road, the Holy Spirit as a light, the church as the candlestick, God as the end, and heaven as the home.

See Calixtus, Epitome Theologiæ; Leydecker, De Economia trium Personarum in Negotio Salutis humanæ; Martensen (1808-1884), Christian Dogmatics; Cocceius, Summa Theologiæ, and Summa Doctrina de Fœdere et Testamento Dei, in Works, vol. vi; Witsius, The Economy of the Covenants; Boston, A Complete Body of Divinity (in Works, vol. 1 and 2), Questions in Divinity (vol. 6), Human Nature in its Fourfold State (vol. 8); Chalmers, Institutes of Theology; Rothe (1799-1867), Dogmatik, and Theologische Ethik; Hase (1800-), Evangelische Dogmatik; Thomasius (1802-1875), Christi Person und Werk: Fuller, Gospel Worthy of all Acceptation (in Works, 2: 328-416), and Letters on Systematic Divinity (1: 684-711); Ursinus (1534-1583), Loci Theologici (in Works, 1: 426-909); Edwards, History of Redemption (in Works, 1: 296–516); Dannhauer (1603-1666), Hodosophia Christiana, seu Theologia Positiva in Methodum redacta.

2. The Synthetic method, which we adopt in this Compendium, is both the most common and the most logical method of arranging the topics of theology. This method proceeds from causes to effects, or, in the language of Hagenbach (Hist. Doctrine, 2: 152), "starts from the highest principle, God, and proceeds to man, Christ, redemption, and finally to the end of

all things." In such a treatment of theology we may best arrange our topics in the following order:

4th. Man, in his original likeness to God and subsequent apostasy.

5th. Redemption, through the work of Christ and of the Holy Spirit. 6th. The nature and laws of the Christian church.

7th. The end of the present system of things.

V. TEXT-BOOKS IN THEOLOGY, valuable for reference:

1. Compendiums: Hase, Hutterus Redivivus; Luthardt, Compendium der Dogmatik; A. A. Hodge, Outlines of Theology (second edition); Pendleton, Christian Doctrine; Hovey, Manual of Theology and Ethics; H. B. Smith, System of Christian Theology.

2. Confessions: Schaff, Creeds of Christendom.

3. Extended Treatises: Calvin, Institutes; Turretin, Institutio Theologiæ; Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology; Dorner, System of Christian Doctrine; Philippi, Glaubenslehre; Van Oosterzee, Christian Dogmatics; Luthardt, Fundamental, Saving, and Moral Truths; Baird, Elohim Revealed; Dagg, Manual of Theology.

4.

Collected Works: Jonathan Edwards; Andrew Fuller.

5. Histories of Doctrine: Hagenbach; Shedd.

6. Monographs: Julius Müller, Doctrine of Sin; Dorner, History of the Doctrine of the Person of Christ; Liddon, Our Lord's Divinity; Shedd, Discourses and Essays.

7. Apologetics: Harris, Philosophical Basis of Theism; Fisher, Grounds of Theistic and Christian Belief; Row, Bampton Lectures for 1877, on Christian Evidences; Peabody, Evidences of Christianity.

8. Intellectual and Moral Philosophy: Porter, Human Intellect; Alden, Intellectual Philosophy; Calderwood, Moral Philosophy; Alexander, Moral Science; Porter, Elements of Moral Science.

9. Theological Encyclopædias: Herzog (second German edition); Schaff-Herzog (English); McClintock and Strong.

10.

11.

Bible Dictionaries: Smith (edited by Hackett).

Commentaries: Meyer, on the New Testament; Philippi, Shedd, Lange (ed. Schaff), on the Epistle to the Romans.

12. Bibles: Stier and Theile, Polyglotten-Bibel; Annotated Paragraph Bible (published by the London Religious Tract Society); Revised GreekEnglish New Testament (published by Harper and Brothers); Revised English Bible.

PART II.

THE EXISTENCE OF GOD.

CHAPTER I.

ORIGIN OF OUR IDEA OF GOD'S EXISTENCE.

God is the infinite and perfect Spirit in whom all things have their source, support, and end.

On the definition of the term God, see Hodge, Syst. Theol., 1: 366. Other definitions are those of Calovius: "Essentia spiritualis infinita"; Ebrard: "The eternal source of all that is temporal"; Kahnis: "The infinite Spirit"; John Howe: "An eternal, uncaused, independent, necessary Being, that hath active power, life, wisdom, goodness, and whatsoever other supposable excellency, in the highest perfection, in and of itself"; Westminster Catechism: "A Spirit infinite, eternal and unchangeable in his being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, goodness and truth"; Andrew Fuller: "The first cause and last end of all things."

The existence of God is a first truth; in other words, the knowledge of God's existence is a rational intuition. Logically, it precedes and conditions all observation and reasoning. Chronologically, only reflection upon the phenomena of nature and of mind occasions its rise in consciousness.

The term intuition means simply direct knowledge. Lowndes (Philos. of Primary Beliefs, 78) and Mansel (Metaphysics, 52) would use the term only of our direct knowledge of substances, as self and body; Porter applies it by preference to our cognition of first truths, such as have been already mentioned. Harris (Philos. Basis of Theism, 44-151, but esp. 45, 46) makes it include both. He divides intuitions into two classes: 1. Presentative intuitions, as self-consciousness (in virtue of which I perceive the existence of spirit and already come in contact with the supernatural), and sense-perception (in virtue of which I perceive the existence of matter, at least in my own organism, and come in contact with nature); 2. Rational intuitions, as space, time, substance, cause, final cause, right, absolute being. We may accept this nomenclature, using the terms "first truths” and “rational intuitions" as equivalent to each other, and classifying rational intuitions under the heads of (1) intuitions of relations, as space and time; (2) intuitions of principles, as substance, cause, final cause, right; and (3) intuition of absolute Being, Power, Reason, Perfection, Personality, as God.

We hold that, as upon occasion of the senses cognizing (a) extended matter, (b) succession, (c) qualities, (d) change, (e) order, (ƒ) action, respectively, the mind cognizes (a) space, (b) time, (c) substance, (d) cause, (e) design, (ƒ) obligation, so upon occasion of our cognizing our finiteness, dependence and responsibility, the mind directly cognizes the existence of an Infinite and Absolute Authority, Perfection, Personality, upon whom we are dependent and to whom we are responsible. Among those who hold to this general view of an intuitive knowledge of God may be mentioned the following:- Calvin, Institutes, book I., chap. 3; Nitzsch, System of Christian Doctrine,