Russia, program of 1890. Eight-year course. I and 2. No history. 3. Russian history. 4. Ancient history. 5. The Middle Ages; Russian history to Ivan IV. 6. Modern history; Russian history to the death of Peter I. 7. Modern history, 1715 to the present; Russian history. 8. Greek and Roman history; Russian history. The time allowance for history in the fifth year is three hours a week and in the other years two hours a week.1

Italy, program of 1894. Eight-year course. I-3. No history. 4. Oriental and Greek history. 5. Italian history to 476 A.D. 6. European history, 476 to Henry VII of Luxembourg, with special reference to Italian history. 7. European and Italian history, Henry VII to 1748. 8. European and Italian history, 1748 to the present. The time allowance for history is four hours a week in the last two years and three hours a week in each of the other years.2

Two

Spain, program of 1895. Five-year course. years of history. 2. History of Spain. Three hours a week. 3. General history. Three hours a week.3

In England the systematic teaching of history in secondary schools was inaugurated by Thomas Arnold at Rugby about 1830. His plan was to begin in the

1 Joseph Baar, op. cit., Part I, appendix.

2 Ibid.

8 Ibid., Part II, 15.

lowest classes with scenes from universal history. These were followed in the middle classes by lively histories of Greece, Rome, and England, and in the higher classes by the study of some historian of the first rank, "whose mind was formed in, and bears the stamp of, some period of advanced civilization analogous to that in which we now live"; for example, Thucydides or Tacitus.1 After Arnold little was done with history until the universities of Oxford and Cambridge in the seventies began to recognize history in their examinations. History then became practically universal in secondary schools. Examinations, however, encouraged subjects rather than well-organized courses in history. The fields usually covered were Greek and Roman history, and English history to 1815 or to 1832. Often also Bible history was included, and occasionally modern continental Europe received some attention. During the last twenty years some schools have introduced more connected courses, but in general the subject system still prevails.

Elementary education lagged behind secondary education, and history programs for elementary schools developed in consequence less rapidly than those for secondary schools. Where elementary schools existed, history, as a rule, received some attention, but it was not until about 1850 that it began to be generally

1 Withers, Teaching of History, 113.

recognized as a separate branch of instruction, and it was not until about 1870 that it began to be generally prescribed for all elementary schools. Even then England formed a notable exception. Here history remained to the very close of the century an option, to be included in elementary instruction, or omitted, at the discretion of the masters.

Programs for the elementary schools down to the present have in most cases confined the material to national history. Surveys of general history beyond what is strictly essential to an understanding of national history are sometimes included, but usually amount to little more than a bare outline. The arrangement of materials has varied as widely as the arrangement of materials for the secondary school. The plan most generally favored appears to have been the concentric circles plan, but the culture-epoch theory has also exerted a very considerable influence. Both now seem to be declining in favor. At the present time history is taught in elementary schools throughout Europe, sometimes in every year of the course, more often in the last four or five years only. Programs for girls occasionally differ from those for boys in their greater emphasis upon Kulturgeschichte. Where history is taught in the lowest classes it usually receives one hour a week. In the upper classes the allowance is usually two hours, but

may, for girls, be reduced to one hour in the last year or two years. In the following examples of current programs the numbers indicate the age of pupils and not the year in the course.

France. 5-7. Anecdotes and biographical stories from French history; stories of travel; explanation of pictures. 7-9. Stories of great characters and chief events of French history to end of Hundred Years' War. 9-11. Summary of French history from end of fifteenth century to the present. 11-13. Review of French history, with a more thorough study of the modern period; very brief summary of general history.1

Berlin. 8. The Emperor and his family, his parents and grandparents. 9. Biographical stories from Augustus to Rudolph of Hapsburg. 10. German history, especially Kulturgeschichte, from Maximilian to end of Thirty Years' War. II. Brandenburg-Prussian history to the death of Frederick the Great; Louis XIV; Peter the Great; Charles XII. 12. Prussian history to the present; the government of Prussia and of Berlin; the American Revolution; the French Revolution; the Napoleonic Empire; Napoleon III; the unification of Italy. 13. German and Prussian territorial expansion; German and Prussian constitutional history.2

1 Plan d'Études des Écoles Primaires Élémentaires.

2 Reim, Methodik des Geschichtsunterrichts, 82–84.

Munich. 10. The foundation of German Christian culture: German and Bavarian history to the death of Frederick Barbarossa. 11. The development of Germanism: German and Bavarian history to Frederick the Great. 12. The rebirth of the German Empire: German and Bavarian history from Frederick the Great to the present. 13. The new German Empire; the history of Munich; position of Bavaria in the Empire; industrial and constitutional development of Bavaria and of the Empire.1

London. 7-8. Simple stories and events mainly connected with a few outstanding characters. 9. Stories of ancient life and civilization. 10-11. British history from the earliest times to 1688. 12. British history from 1688 to the present day. 13. A more definite understanding of modern British history, combined with Imperial history from the beginning of the age of discovery.2

The nineteenth century has been called the century of history. It was then that historians began really to see the past clearly through the eyes of the past and to recognize in a new and fuller sense the differences between existence in the past and existence in the present. The idea of development changed the whole aspect of

1 Vergangenheit und Gegenwart, 1913, Heft 1, p. 25–27.

2 Recommendations in Report of a Conference on the Teaching of History in London Elmentary Schools, 1911, p. 51.