and thought of humanity; that it is developed in an environment which is social as well as physical, and that social needs and aims have been most potent in shaping it, that the chief difference between savagery and civilization is not in the naked nature which each faces, but the social heredity and social medium.

In the second place, the older psychology was a psychology of knowledge, of intellect. Emotion and endeavor occupied but an incidental and derivative place. Much was said about sensations, next to nothing about movements. There was discussion of ideas and of whether they originated in sensations or in some innate mental faculty; but the possibility of their origin in and from the needs of action was ignored. Their influence upon conduct, upon behavior, was regarded as an external attachment.

The third point of contrast lies in the modern conception of the mind as essentially a process-a process of growth, not a fixed thing. According to the older view, mind was mind, and that was the whole story. Mind was the same throughout, because fitted out with the same assortment of faculties, whether in child or adult. If any difference was made it was simply that some of these ready-made faculties such as memory-came into play at an earlier time, while others, such as judging and inferring, made their appearance only after the child, through memorizing drills, had been reduced to complete dependence upon the thought of others. The only important difference that was recognized was one of quantity, of amount. The boy was a little man and his mind was a little mind,-in everything but size the same as that of the adult, having its own readyfurnished equipment of faculties, of attention, memory, etc. Now we believe in the mind as a growing affair, and hence as essentially changing, presenting distinctive phases of capacity and interest at different periods. These are all one and the same in the sense of continuity of life, but all different in that each. has its own distinctive claims and offices. "First the blade, then the ear, and then the full corn in the ear."

20. The Field of Educational Psychology

Psychological principles furnish the foundation for the technique of teaching. Consequently, the field of educational psychology includes two large divisions, the native equipment

of human beings and the psychology of learning. An anal ysis of these two large divisions reveals a number of spe cific problems which constitute the subject-matter of educational psychology. Original nature includes a study of the nature of the individual's unlearned equipment, individual differences and the measurement of general and special mental abilities and disabilities.

The psychology of learning includes the psychology of learning in general, and the learning of school subjects in particular. The former division is concerned with learning by observation and perception, trial and error, association, and reasoning; the transfer of training and the rate and progress of learning. The psychology of school subjects includes the psychology of learning the different subjects, the rate of progress, the mental processes involved in learning each subject, special abilities and disabilities in the different branches, most economical way of learning the subjects, etc.

21. What Is Consciousness?

[COLVIN, S. S., The Learning Process, pp. 5-6. Copyright, 1911, by the Macmillan Co.] (Adapted.)

In his now famous chapter on The Stream of Consciousness, James pointed out in a very clear manner that consciousness is not a thing but a process. Therefore, in order to understand its nature, it cannot be studied as something static. As a process, it is constantly changing and flowing on toward a more or less definite goal under the dominance of certain laws. Consciousness is made up of a series of related events, harmoniously associated and leading to a final conclusion.

Consciousness may be considered from the viewpoint of the law of purpose. This law differentiates the psychic world from the material world. The material world can be explained in terms of cause and effect, but in the mental world purpose, design, and aim are necessary for any adequate interpretation. A satisfactory account of the ap pearance and grouping of mental states can be shown only by reference to the end, aim, or purpose toward which the mental processes are moving.

22. Every Experience Is Motor

[COLVIN, S. S., The Learning Process, pp. 14-15. Copyright, 1911, by the Macmillan Co.] (Adapted.)

In describing the consciousness of a child in a very new situation, James characterized it as "a big, blooming, buzzing, confusion." The adult has a similar experience when he emerges from a depot in a strange city. The child's sense organs are assailed on all sides by a large variety of stimuli. As his sense organs are functioning in a more or less perfect way, his experiences are more or less vague. It is just as important that proper connections be perfected in the higher centers as it is for the sense organs to be capable of response to stimulation.

In many instances, such connections are lacking at birth. In order to perceive the objects of his environment, the child must react to them. It has been recognized for a long time that all learning is reacting. Sense impressions must be carried over into motor expression. In other words, every completed experience is motor as well as sensory. The objective world is to be reacted to as well as sensed, and its meaning grows and develops as the reactions become more comprehensive, definite, and precise.

23. Characteristic of Consciousness

[BODE, B. H., Fundamentals in Education, p. 216. Copyright, 1921, by the Macmillan Co. Reprinted by permission.]

Consciousness is essentially experimental, forward looking, controlled by the future.

24. Consciousness and the Learning Process [KILPATRICK, W. H., "Mind-Set and Learning," Journal of Educational Method, 1921, Vol. 1, p. 150.]

Indeed, it [consciousness] is an important factor. Its function here is at least three-fold: first, to connect more surely and definitely the various responses with their several appropriate stimuli, second, to attach satisfactions or annoyances more precisely where they severally belong, and third, by emphatic attention to heighten the satisfaction or annoyance felt. It is for these reasons, among others, that we are most

anxious that pupils think while they act and consciously intend the several steps they take.

25. The Field of Mental Content

The field of mental content has been likened to an iceberg, of which only a small portion is visible above the surface of the water. In the same way, only a small portion of mental content is above the threshold of consciousness. The field of mental states includes the focus of attention, the marginal fringe, and an ultra-marginal field known as the subconscious or the unconscious. The subconscious or unconscious denotes any form of psychical existence which underlies the personal consciousness.

26. Mind

[THORNDIKE, E. L., The Elements of Psychology, pp. 1 ff., 92 ff., 111 ff. New York, A. G. Seiler, copyright, 1907.] (Adapted.)

Mind is neither a single force nor a collection of unrelated powers. Mind is a term used to denote the sum-total of mental states and processes in a lifetime. Consciousness is a term used to denote the sum-total of these states and processes at any given moment. Sensations, images, feelings, meanings, and actions serve to illustrate what is meant by these terms. When certain of these states or functions are grouped in one form or pattern, the process is perception; when arranged in another form, imagination; and in other forms-memory, reasoning, and so on. Emotion and will are complex patterns involving combinations and modifications of other elements. It is for convenience that we speak of different kinds of mental facts for consciousness is made up of various blends and combinations of thought-stuff. As Thorndike says:

"Mental life is not like a series of solos, now sensations, now memories, now decisions; but is like the performance of an orchestra in which many sounds fuse into a total."

27. The Significance of Consciousness in Evolution [JUDD, Charles H., "Evolution and Consciousness," The Psychological Review, March, 1910. Vol. 17, pp. 77-97.] (Abridged.)

[There are those who] tell us that nothing significant is added to the concept of adjustment or to the concept of

behavior by discussing psychical factors. All behavior is a simple sensory-motor process; those types of conduct which the unscientific man is wont to think of as intelligent and extra-organic are merely complex instincts or at most combinations of reflexes acquired under the stress of external excitations. . . . I shall hope to show in strictly objective terms that consciousness is a product of evolution which continues in a higher form the movement which is manifest in all earlier adaptations. I shall hope to show further that as soon as consciousness was fully evolved the direction of all adaptation was radically modified. Finally, I should like to defend the thesis that if any scientific explanation of human life is to be attained that explanation must be based on a thoroughgoing study of consciousness. . . The processes of human adaptation are different from those of animal adaptation just because human adaptation is determined in character by consciousness. There has been a steady increase in the complexity of organisms. . . . What is the significance of this increase in complexity? The lesson is perfectly clear when we look at the concrete facts. By an increase in complexity the organism attains to an ever increasing degree of self-sufficience. .

Every organ of the complex animal bears witness to the rtuth that inner self-sufficiency is the end toward which, organic evolution has been progressing. There are organs for the storing of energy so that the individual shall be relatively free from the necessity of securing immediate nutrition. There are or gans for the secretions of chemical reagents which shall convert the raw material used as food into proper ingredients for the building up of body tissues. Organisms have always exhibited in their higher forms organs of mobility which make them free to move at their own initiative.

In all these cases the obvious significance of increasing complexity is increasing autonomy of the individual. . . . What is stated is that organisms are drawn out of the environment, that is, they are in ever-increasing degree differentiated from the environment during their more and more complete evolution.

Such considerations as these prepare us to understand the importance of consciousness. Consciousness is a function which promotes self-sufficiency by literally taking up the environment into the individual [as in the case of the embryonic development of the young in utero] and there remolding the absorbed environment in conformity to individual needs. Consciousness is an inner world where the motives of individual self