sumption or to procure a living. The enterprising merchant, or even tradesman, is therefore always an exception in a system which strangles enterprise at its birth. As living is cheap it can be easily. understood that little is wanted to gratify the ambition of the majority. Then, again, this normal state of insecurity leads to great secretiveness. Few merchants of Constantinople but have seen those tombstones, in the Greek and Armenian and Jewish cemeteries, which figuratively record that the corpse below belongs to one who was favoured with the bow-string for his reputed wealth. If they have not seen them, the tradition is not the less. current throughout the empire. Merchants are so fearful of being supposed to be wealthy, that on their way to the fairs of Pesth, Leipzig, Odessa, or elsewhere, they hide their money in sacks of red pepper. At home, all pretensions to wealth, such as luxury of dress or furniture, or equipages of any description, are eschewed. An Armenian saraph, or banker, receives a visitor in what is little better than a cell in a massive Khan or Kerwanserai. Hence it is also that, with some exceptions-there are always exceptions when one has to deal with generalities-there are few large fortunes made in Turkey. If there are exceptions, they are Turkish officials, who become rich upon finessing; Armenian saraphs, who become rich upon usury; and Greek merchants, who become rich by speculation. Throughout Turkey a man with two or three hundred a year (three thousand florins in Servia, and seven to eight thousand francs in Turkey) is deemed to be a rich man ; whilst four or five hundred a year income is looked upon as a large fortune. Add to this, there are few means of employing money usefully when acquired. The Turkish loans, paid as they have been out of the sweat and toil of the working man, have never been in favour in Turkey itself, as they have been with European nations. Even the Servian, when he has made a little ready money by the sale of his pigs, which rove in independence, and multiply almost without a care or thought for them, in vast forests of acorns and beech-mast, places his sequins in a bag and hides it away. No one ever thinks of investing money and living upon the interest of it. But this is common to most oriental nations; and hence it is, that while one repacious ruler builds palaces, temples, and tombs, which astonish future generations by their magnificence, the majority dwell, and have dwelt for ages, in hovels. This system has probably obtained from the day of the pyramids to that when the last mausoleum of gold and marble rose over the relics of Abdul Assiz's predecessor. India is in this respect the most favoured of oriental nations; every one can enjoy property or money in perfect security, and the majority would be very blind to risk so happy a state of things in exchange for the luxury and magnificence of any future Grand Mogul or Nadir Shah, whose display is earned at the expense of the people, while all security of tenure would be lost for ever. When asking in oriental towns for ancient coins-there was no such thing; but on leaving the same town, two or three of the inhabitants would walk out a mile or two by way of company, and then before parting would display bags full of Greek, Macedonian, and Roman gold and silver. It is the same with pearls and precious stones. The writer never, but on one occasion, saw a native exhibit a string of pearls in the presence of a pasha. Many a poor peasant, having nothing to do with his gold, gives it a kind of security by affixing it to the head-dress of his wife and daughters. Many a miserably-dressed peasant may have plenty of gold secreted away -look alone at the price given by a poor Arab for a coveted mare of really good breed-and the knowledge of this circumstance is made an excuse for the dreaded avanias, or sudden acts of extortion. All bargains are cemented in Turkey by shaking hands in the presence of witnesses. Written contracts are very rarely had recourse to. The Muhammadans have retained the practice of paying rents on the same days as were usual in the time of the Low Empire, or of the Byzantines-St. George's day, the 5th of May, and St. Demetrius's day, the 23rd of October. The oka is the stan dard measure of weight, and is equivalent to two pounds and a quarter. There are 400 drachms in an oka. The half and quarters of an oka have different names in different provinces. For other measures they have the arschin (about 22 inches), and for land, the denum, or the square space that can be ploughed with two oxen in a day. The Turks have also the deulum, a square of 40 arschin, or archines, as the Europeans call them, and evlek, an oblong of 10 arschins in width, by 40 in length. The coinage (akje) is upon the decimal or duodecimal system. The gold coins are Iyirmiluks or Mahmudiyehs (commonly called gazis), of 20 piastres; the silver coins (Beshluks) of 5 piastres, and half beshluks. The piastre is generally current at 24d. or 25 centimes. The latter coin, as also portions of a piastre, especially the para, so current among the peasants, are so badly coined, being a copper alloy slightly silvered over, that they soon wear out and lose all value. The history of the piastre, as the standard of Turkish currency, is curious. It was originally founded on the piastre of Spain, and was worth 5 francs and 6 sous. In 1775 it fell to 3 francs and 2 sous, and at the advent of Selim III., to 2 francs 10 sous. It fell during the same reign to 1 franc 10 sous, and in more recent times the decline in value has been still more rapid in 1819 it was worth 90 centimes, or 9d. ; in 1826, 40 centimes, or 4d. ; and in 1836 to 25 centimes or 24d. Paras are indispensable to travel- lers, as change is rarely procurable in country places. The Slavonians have coins of 60 paras, known as vijlin in Servia, and viselin in Bosnia. The Bulgarians have their solot of 30 paras; the Albanians their Katzelis or Katzils of 20 paras in some places, 21 in others. The Dacians have their lutschs of 12 paras; Upper Moesia and Ochrida rups of 10 paras. When it is considered that in some places, a large water melon can be purchased for 1 or 2 paras, and cucumbers and other fruits and vegetables and even fish, for the same price, it will be seen how essentially necessary it is to make the para the basis of all small marketing; and the fortieth part of two-pence half-penny obtains, in so cheap a country, almost the same importance as a centime in France. A great number of foreign coins are current in Turkey, but their value varies at particular times and places. Government payments are made in little leathern sacks or purses (khurj or Kesé) of 500 piastres (five pounds, or 125 francs). Hence the esti mate by "purses." The interest upon money averages in Turkey 20 per cent., but for a loan the Jews and Armenians charge from 20 to 40 per cent. Money being so valuable in Turkey, lands and houses are sold proportionately cheap. In Servia a large house used to cost from £50 to £125; but at Belgrade, with one story, from £100 to £700. Now, the English consul pays a hundred a year rent. A peasant's hut was built for from 10s. to a £1, wood and mud, costing merely the labour of removal. A good wooden house could be purchased in Bosnia for from £8 to £10. The price of wheat varies with places and seasons, but the average value is from 10 to 20 paras an oka-that is to say, from one half-penny to a penny for two pounds and a quarter. When flour was at 14 paras the oka, it was fetching 32 to 36 paras, or nearly two-pence per 24 lbs. The price of the best bread varies from 12 to 30 paras, or from one half-penny to twopence per 24 lbs; at Janina, a piastre or 24d. Maize or Turkey corn fetches from 10 to 20 paras the 21 lbs. The state reserves to itself the right to purchase corn and rice for the soldiery and others at its own price It is to be observed that the data for prices given here were obtained some years ago, and may have altered since then ; but with increasing financial difficulties throughout the Empire, it is not likely that there will be much increase in the value of produce. It is when money is abundant that the price of articles of daily consumption are most enhanced. Wages are much influenced by the price of corn, and therefore vary a good deal. The average may be stated as from 5 to 10 piastres, or from one to two shillings; but with three meals a day the labourer only obtains 2 to 3 piastres, or from 5d. to 7 d. A man-servant receives from 40 to 60 piastres, or from 8 to 10 shillings a month; and girls from 12 to 14 shillings a year, with two dresses, one for summer and one for winter. Work done by foreigners is well paid for in Turkey, and is consequently at least one-third higher than at Vienna. Any skilled workmen, more especially tailors, shoemakers, carpenters, locksmiths, saddlers or others, could easily realise a competency at Constantinople, if sober and industrious. Rice varies in price from 2 piastres, or 5d. to 7d. to 1s. 7d. the oka. The latter price only occurs when a pasha has monopolised the sale. Local pashas rack their ingenuity in buying up monopolies, and thus sometimes such common things as salt or soap will rise five or six times in value in the same town. Barley only fetches 10 to 12 paras, or from one half-penny to a penny for 24 lbs. It has been as low as 4 paras, or less than a farthing for 24 lbs. in Wallachia. As hops grow wild in Turkey the success of their cultivation is unquestionable; and with barley at such a price Turkey might become the paradise of beer drinkers, as, with skill, it might also become that of lovers of the more generous grape-juice. Oats fetch about the same price as barley, but if anything rather less. Triticum polonicum sells in Herzegovina at about 3 Austrian kreutzers the oka. Hay sells at 5 to 10 paras the oka, and from 10 to 20 piastres, or from 1 to 2 shillings the load. Wood for fuel ("odun " T., "drvo" Sl., "dru" Al., "lemn" Dac., "xylon" Gr.) has no price, save labour and transport. In the woody regious every one cuts as much as he wants. But from want of good roads and means of transport, labour and carriage make it expensive in some districts. The Arabs, for example, use the dung of animals for fuel, and in their rich language they have names for every variety. Even at Belgrade a load of wood is valued at from 4 to 5 shillings, and Turkish carts do not hold much. Yet the price of labour is ridiculously small, from 8d. to a shilling for horse hire, and 50 paras, or about 3d., for a man, being all that the natives generally pay. A sheep fetches from 10 to 12 piastres, or from 23. to 2s. 6d. in Macedonia and Albania; but 3s. to 4s. at Janina. At Etropol a sheep is worth 1s. 6d., but a mountain sheep fetches as much as 3s. At Semlin, in Austria, a sheep is worth from 3 to 4s., and at Vienna from 8 to 12s., according to the quality. A sheep's skin in Turkey fetches from 1s. to 1s. 6d. Mutton sells at from 30 paras to 1 piastre the oka, or from 2d. to 24d. the 24 lbs. At Etropol only 20 to 30 paras, but at Janina and Belgrade from 60 to even 90 paras-the highest being 6d. per pound. Roasted, the price is from 24d. at Scutari, to 74d. the 2 lbs. at Janina. A lamb fetches from 8 to 15 or 20 piastres, according to the season. A goat from 5 piastres (1s.) to 10 piastres. Goat's hair sells at from 2 piastres to 3 piastres the oka. A horse fetches from £4 to £5 in Servia, and can be sold at a profit in the low countries. Its daily cost is from 2 to 3 piastres. This is the price of country inns, but at Constantinople they charge about 5 piastres, or a shilling, a day for the keep of a horse. The price of a cow varies from £1 to £2, or even £3 if a good milker. Of an ox from £1 to £3. Of a calf in Slavonia from 8s. to 10s. The Turks, as we have before said, do not sell or kill calves. Fowls fetch throughout Turkey from 1 piastre to 2 piastres, or from 3d. to 5d. The price, however, varies from 1 piastre (2d.) to 3 piastres or 74d. at some inns. An egg fetches from 5 to 10 paras, which would be equivalent to from 3d. to 6d. a dozen. But in remote country places the prices are still lower. When on the Euphrates, the poor Madain or pastoral Arabs would bring a sheep on board, and when asked the price, would say, "Whatever you like-we do not know the value of money." They have probably learnt better since a regular steam navigation has been opened with Baghdad. All travellers in the East are not only liable to be overcharged, but are certain to be so by their Levantine servants and interpreters. The native servants are the best, whether Turk, Syrian, or Arab. The price of a duck at Belgrade is from 2 to 3 piastres, or from 6d. to 9d.; but in the country, where procurable, not more than from 5d. to 7d. In Bulgaria and Thracia a goose may be obtained at from one shilling to 1s. 6d., English money, according to the size of the bird. A Turkey fetches in Thracia and Bulgaria 1s. and 10d. to 2s. But in Bithynia we got them for 1s. each, and boiled them for want of better means to cook them. Potatoes fetch in Bosnia and Servia 15 to 20 paras or about a penny the oka of 2 lbs-a sack is worth from 2 to 3 shillings. A Turk, it is to be observed, does not say "how much is this?" but "how many paras?" Potatoes are not to be found in the hot parts of Turkey; but Colonel Taylor, the late resident at Baghdad, grew potatoes and other English vegetables in winter. The price of |