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been admitted by naturalists, as being that of a distinct speciesDipus Brucii.

The common marmot is met with in Taurus and Kurdistan, but Tristram describes the marmot of Palestine as Psammomys obesus, or the fat Psammomys. A little short-tailed marmot, less than the common species, which has not yet obtained a place in systematic nomenclature, was found on the top of Mount Hermon.

A species of gerbil exists apparently under a similar unfortu. nate state of obloquy. The writer first met with this little anim l under peculiar circumstances. He was roving in the tamarisk forest of the Amran, on the river Euphrates, when he saw a specimen suspended by a thorn on a very slender twig. It had evidently been accidentally transfixed by the thorn, and, being unable to regain its footing, it had perished by a miserable death. Although found in a tamarisk wood, it was certainly not the Gerbillus tamaricinus of Pallas, which that naturalist described from a species found on the Caspian Sea, and which is only six inches in length and its tail five. The gerbillus of the Euphrates measured with the tail seventeen inches in length. The skin was destroyed by insects, so it is impossible to say if it was not an African or Indian species.

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The hamster ("rtschak" of the Slavonians, and with other field mice, the "far burri" or "jird "of the Arabs) is met with in the gardens around towns, where it devours all kinds of vegetables and fruits. Russell tells us that there is nothing remarkable in the rat of Syria, ("jirdûn" of the Arabs), or in the common mouse (Far). The open country is, however, overrun by a variety of field-mice. buyuk-ova-setjani" of the Turks, and "pontikos-tès-gès" of the Greeks, is said to be the shrew-mouse, and the "tekunitza" of the Slavonians-Mus muscitellus; but the Syrian species have not yet been well determined. In such years as are accompanied by little or no frost in the winter, these little animals make dreadful havoc in the cultivated fields. The peasants are on such occasions encouraged to destroy them by a premium of so much a head. The short-tailed field-mouse (mus terrestris of Linnæus, but arvicola vulgaris of modern systematists) is particularly noted as one of the most pernicious of all small rodents, and becomes at times a real devastator, from its numbers and ravenousness.

There is much reason to believe from this fact, and also to be deduced from the numerous passages collected by Bochart from the Greek and other writers (Hierozoicon i. p. 1018), relative to the terrible devastation made by these small rodents, that although the term "achbar" would seem, where used in the Old Testament (Lev. xi. 29; 1 Sam, vi. 4, &c.; Isa. lxvi. 17), to apply to

several animals, yet that the mouse tribe was meant by the term "field ravager," and not the jerboa, to which Bochart would confine it. The jerboa, although little isolated colonies of them or of an allied species, are to be met with occasionally, as at the foot of Mount Argæus, is an inhabitant of the wilderness, more than of cultivated lands. Colonel Hamilton Smith concluded that all the texts in 1 Sam. vi. refer to the short-tailed field-mouse, which, he adds, is most likely the species noticed in antiquity and during the Crusades, for had they been jerboas in shape and resembled miniature kangaroos, we would expect William of Tyre to have mentioned the peculiar form of the destroyer, which was then unknown to Western Europe; whereas, they being of a species or appearance familiar to the Latin nations, no particulars were required. But in Leviticus and Isaiah, where the mouse is declared to be an unclean animal, the species most likely to be alluded to were the hamster and the dormouse, both of which are still eaten, in common with the jerboa, by the Arabs in times of dire necessity.

Considering the immense quantity of wild onions that grow upon the plains of Mesopotamia, there can be little doubt, but that some species of arvicolæ, such as have been met with in Russia, living solely on wild onions, leeks, and garlic, must also dwell in these regions.

A species of beaver is met with in the rivers Euphrates, Tigris, Karun and the Khabur-the central river of Mesopotamia,—in which last it appears specially to abound. It is quite a peculiar species; the tail instead of being large and broad to assist the animal in constructing dams, is short and pointed. Hence it neither builds huts or constructs dams, but it burrows in the banks, taking care to make the entrance of the holes, below the surface of the water, so as to avoid detection, whilst the chambers are above, out of reach of the floods.

Layard tells us (Nin. and Babyl. p 296) that these peculiar beavers were formerly found in large numbers on the Khabur, but in consequence of the value attached to the musk-bag, they have been hunted down almost to extermination by the Arabs. Sûfûk, the great sheikh of the Shammar tribe considered the musk bag of a beaver the most acceptable present, he could send as a majuncharm or specific-to a Turkish pasha. Muhammad Emin, sheikh of the Jeburs, also assured Layard that for several years not more than one or two had been seen. Yet whilst Layard was on the banks of the river, being early spring, a good deal of rain fell, the river rose and the Jeburs killed four beavers and captured three young ones alive, they having been driven from their holes by the swollen stream. The Arabs ate the flesh, which was cooked also by

Mr. Layard himself and his companions, but they deemed it to be coarse and tough. They were kept for some days on milk, but they eventually died. Their cry resembled that of a new-born infant. It would appear in this case that the banks were not sufficiently elevated to allow of the chamber being above the floods. It is difficult on the greater rivers to distinguish between the holes made by beavers and otters, and those made by warans, or large lizards, the otter being most abundant, but all alike being liable to be under water at time of flood.

The porcupine, (" kipri " or " kirpi " of the Turks, "thej" of the Slaves, "esch" or "urik," of the Albanians, "aritsch "of the Dacians, "skautzochoiros " of the Greeks and "kunfcud" of the Arabs), is, as its names show, known throughout the country. Its quills abounded in the caves and sepulchral grottoes at Seleucia Pieria, and among other ruins. Russell says that it is brought to the Aleppo market at times by the peasants, but rather as a curiosity than for the kitchen, though it is sometimes served up at the tables of the Franks. The species appear to be Hystrix cristata, common to the south of Europe and to Africa.

Hares, (“tavchan" of the Turks," zetz" of the Slaves, "liepur" of the Albanians, "epurele " of the Dacians, "lagos" of the Greeks, and "arnet" of the Arabs) are common throughout the country. Russell says they are so plentiful in the environs of Aleppo, that it was no uncommon thing to see the gentlemen who went out coursing return with four or five brace. The native system of hunting them is with the Turkoman greyhound, assisted by the hawk. Two kiuds of hare are known to the natives in Syria, the largest is the Turkoman hare, the other is the common hare of the wilderness. The latter, if hard run, wil take to holes in the earth or in rocks. Colonel Hamilton Smith also distinguishes two hares in Syria, one of which he calls Lepus Syriacus, or Syrian hare, and the other Lepus Sinaiticus, or the Desert hare. They are both distinguished from the common hare by a greater length of ears, and a black tail with white fringe. Mr. Tristram also noticed the two species, and he further notices, (p. 242), a hare, as being shot in the lower valley of the Jordan, of a species quite distinct from Lepus Sinaiticus. There is also a third, if not a fourth species, found in Egypt, and represented on the monuments.

The arnebeth of the Old Testament (Lev. xi. 16, and Deut. xiv. 7) is prohibited from being used as food, because it chews the cud. It has, indeed, been rejected as food by many nations of antiquity besides the Jews. It is still rejected by the Armenians, and it is eaten but sparsely by the Muhammadans.

The rabbit, ("ada tavchani" of the Turks, "pitomi zetz" of the Slavonians, "bute" of the Albanians, "kuneli" of the Greeks) appears

to be known, yet is very rare.

The Arabs have no name to distinguish it from the hare, yet like that animal it is valued for its fur. But it is forbidden by the law of Moses, and repudiated as food by the Mussulmans.

The rabbit may, indeed, be said to be represented in Syria and Palestine by the shaphan or cony of our version of the Old Testament. But the shaphan is not a rabbit or a cony, but, as Bruce justly pointed out, the same as the ashkoko, the gaman, not daman, or lamb of Israel,' the wabber or wab'r of the Arabs, and in scientific zoology is one of the small genus Hyrax, distinguished This curious little by the specific name of Syriacus or Syrian. animal is neither a rodent, like hares and rabbits, nor a ruminant it is anamolous, and most nearly allied to the great pachyderms of systematic zoology. Externally it is somewhat of the size, and form and brownish colour of a rabbit, but it is of clumsier habits, without tail, and cannot dig, being by nature designed to reside, not like rabbits in burrows, but in the clefts of rocks.

paws, make Their timid, gregarious habits and the tenderness of them truly "the wise and feeble folk" of Solomon; for they dwell in colonies, in the crevices of stony places, and in every locality, they are quiet, gentle creatures, loving to bask in the sun, never stirring from their retreats, moving with caution, and shrinking from the shadow of a passing bird, for they are often the prey of eagles and bawks; their habits are strictly diurnal, and they feed on vegetables, roots, and seeds. Mr. Tristram describes them as rare in the present day in Palestine, and as excessively wary. The only chance of securing one is to be concealed patiently, about sunset or before sunrise, on some overhanging cliff, taking care not to let the shadow be cast below, and there to wait till the little creatures cautiously peep forth from their holes.

"nerast" or

Wild boars ("yaban domuzu " of the Turks, "nerast "divlia zvinia" of the Slaves, "agriochoiros" of the Greeks, and "khanzir" of the Arabs) are met with throughout the country, and not being eaten by the Muhammadans have multiplied exceedingly in some places. There are few marshes of any extent south of Taurus in which wild boars are not to be met with. They lie in the marshes, sometimes in dried-up water-courses, huddled in holes under the overhanging bank, and they leave their lairs at sunset to feed, returning at break of day. They may then be seen returning to their homes, young and old, by dozens. At other times they lie in troops in grassy plains or under cover. But they are also met with one or two together, even close to villages, in search of food.

Not only the Hebrews, but other neighbouring nations have always abstained from swine's flesh, as the Muhammadans do in the present day; nor is it in request with the Christians-at least

in Asiatic Turkey. It is, however, certain that domestic swine were reared by the Jews. The parable of the prodigal son, and Christ's miraculous cure of the demoniac, when he permitted swine to be possessed, furnish ample proof that during the dominion of the Romans they were kept around the kingdom of Judah; and the restrictive laws of Hyrcanus on this subject indicate that the Jews themselves were not altogether strangers to this unlawful practice.

The wild boar of the east, though commonly smaller than the old breeds of domestic swine, grow occasionally to a very large size. It is, however, doubtful whether this species is the same as that of Europe, for the farrow is not striped It is most likely that it is identical with the wild hog of India. It is passive when unmolested, but vindictive and fierce when roused. In the time of the Crusades, Richard Cœur de Lion is described as encountering one of great size, running it through with his lance, and while the animal was still endeavouring to gore his horse, leaping over its back, and slaying it with his sword.

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The horse ("sus" in Hebrew, "sukh" in Turkish, "haysan in Arabic) is designated by a great variety of figurative names in the Old Testament, as "parash," a saddle and chariot horse (Isa. xxi. 7-9); "parashina," Persians or horsemen; "rechesh," the swift; "rachab," cavalry, etc.

The horse is supposed to be derived from High Asia, and not to be indigenous to Arabia, Syria, or Egypt. They are not mentioned among the presents which Pharaoh bestowed upon Abraham, and occur in Scripture for the first time when the patriarch Joseph receives them from the Egyptians in exchange for bread (Geu. xlvii. 7). Yet in the sculptured battle scenes, which are supposed to represent victories of Sesostris or of Thothmes II. and III. over nations of Central Asia, it is evident that the hostile armies, as well as the foreign allies of Egypt, were abundantly supplied with horses, both for chariots and riders.

All the great original varieties or races of horses in Western Asia appear to have been known in scriptural times, and the Hebrew prophets themselves have not unfrequently distinguished the nations they had in view by means of the predominant colours of their horses, and that more correctly than commentators have surmised. Taking Bochart's application of the Hebrew names, the bay race (adom) emphatically belonged to Egypt and Arabia; the white (labonim) to the regions above the Euxine Sea, Asia Minor, and Northern High Asia; the dun, or cream coloured (serukim), to the Medes; the spotted, piebald, or skewbald (berudim), to the Macedonians, the Parthians, and later Tartars; and the black (Shachorim) to the Romans; but the chesnuts (amutz) do not belong to any known historical race.

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