interest. Though defeated by Douglas in the Senatorial campaign of which the debates were the most spectacular feature, Lincoln forced his opponent into the admission that the people of a territory could by lawful means prevent the introduction of slavery into the territory -an admission that was to make Douglas unacceptable to the South as а Presidential candidate two years later. Moreover, Lincoln's trenchant way of writing and speaking on the large issues of the campaign had already marked him as a man of power. By the time the debates had come to a close, the East was finding itself interested in Lincoln, and towards the end of 1859 he was invited to speak in the Cooper Institute at New York. The Presidential nominating conventions were still some months in the future, but the possibility that Lincoln might be the leader of the Republicans was already being discussed. It is probably no exaggeration to say that the address delivered in response to this invitation did as much as any single thing to make that possibility a fact.

The presiding officer on the evening of the address was William Cullen Bryant. It is well known that at first Lincoln seemed ill at ease and somewhat awkward. As he proceeded, however, and realized the intelligent friendliness of his audience, he quickly got rid of his initial embarrassment, and made the event one of the great triumphs in his career as a speaker.

(1)

The address is memorable on many accounts, but three considerations will impress the student most strongly: It shows Lincoln as a master of facts; (2) It shows his power of organizing the facts which his own research had made available; (3) It shows him phrasing his ideas so clearly that even a hostile auditor could not fail to grasp his meaning.

771. b. 25. Dred Scott Case. In 1848 Dred Scott, a negro slave then residing in Missouri, sued for his freedom on the grounds that his owner had in 1836 taken him into Illinois, where slavery was illegal, and in 1838 into Minnesota-part of the Louisiana territory where slavery was expressly prohibited by the "Compromise of 1820." The case reached the Supreme Court of the United States in 1854, and in 1857 the decision was handed down, written by Chief Justice Taney. The decision held, in effect, that Scott was not entitled to sue for his freedom, because as a slave he was not a citizen of Missouri. The Chief Justice went further than this, however, and wrote into the decision certain obiter dicta concerning the entire matter of slavery, vir

tually stating that slaves were not persons but property, and as such could be taken into any free territory and held in slavery.

773. a. 6. But enough! Up to this point Lincoln has been discussing Douglas's statement quoted at the beginning of the address. He now turns to the attitude of the South towards the Republican Party, and of the Republican Party towards slavery and related questions. 774. b. 35. Harper's Ferry! John Brown! For years before his raid upon the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, October 16, 1859, John Brown (1800-1859) had been an uncompromising abolitionist. The raid, intended to start a general slave revolt, failed completely of its purpose. Brown was captured by troops under command of R. E. Lee, convicted of treason and murder, and hanged on December 2, 1859. The incident provoked the most intense bitterness at the South. Stedman's poem, above, p. 1023.

See

A

775. a. 47. Southampton insurrection. rising of the slaves in Southampton County, Virginia, which took place in 1831. Before the affair ended some seventy persons had lost their lives. b. 21. Slave revolution in Haiti. The famous insurrection of 1791, led by Toussaint L'Ouverture.

b. 23. Gunpowder Plot. A plot to blow up the houses of Parliament at a time when the King, Ministers, and Members, should all be present. The plot was discovered, and frustrated on November 5, 1605.

776. a. 28. Orsini's attempt. On January 14, 1858, Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III.

a. 38. Helper's book. The Impending Crisis in the South, and How to Meet It, by Hinton R. Helper (1829-1909), published in 1857.

b. 36. The Supreme Court has decided. In the Dred Scott case. See note, above.

FAREWELL ADDRESS

779. Just as the train bearing Lincoln towards Washington was about to start, the President-elect appeared on the rear platform and spoke briefly to the friends and neighbors who were standing in a drizzling rain waiting "to see him of." The speech was wholly extemporaneous.

ADDRESS IN INDEPENDENCE HALL One of several informal.addresses made in the course of the journey from Springfield, Illinois, to Washington.

FIRST INAUGURAL ADDRESS

780. The last paragraph of this address gives interesting evidence of Lincoln's sty tic ability. As originally written, the

conclusion was unsatisfactory, both to Lincoln and to Seward, who advised with Lincoln concerning the entire address. Seward submitted two suggestions for a concluding paragraph, one of little value, and the other running thus: "I close. We are not, we must not be, aliens or enemies, but fellow-countrymen and brethren. Although passion has strained our bonds of affection too hardly, they must not, I am sure they will not, be broken. The mystic chords which, proceeding from so many battlefields and so many patriot graves, pass through all the hearts and all the hearths in this broad continent of ours, will yet again harmonize in their ancient music when breathed upon by the guardian angel of the nation."

Recognizing this as more appropriate than what he had previously written, Lincoln took the general idea, and the figure of speech in Seward's last sentence, recast it all in simpler sentence structure, and gave to the whole the touch of style which was henceforth to distinguish all his work.

LETTER TO MAJOR RAMSEY

This letter is reprinted from the Constitutional Edition of Lincoln's works, by permission of the publishers, Messrs. G. P. Putnam's Sons.

LETTER TO GENERAL G. B. M°CLELLAN

George B. McClellan (1826-1885) was one of the many Northern generals who proved unequal to the tasks assigned them. A genius at organization, and a favorite with the men of his command, he lacked the driving ability necessary in a commander confronted by men like Jackson and Lee. Not long after this letter was sent, McClellan was removed from the command of the Army of the Potomac. See the telegram to him dated October 24, 1862.

LETTER TO HORACE GREELEY

Horace Greeley (1811-1872), owner and editor of the New York Tribune, had supported Lincoln during the campaign, and during the trying first year of the war. By the summer of 1862, however, he had come to feel that the administration's policy as regards slavery was a temporizing one. Hence his "Open letter," entitled "A Prayer of Twenty Millions," that elicited Lincoln's reply. The third paragraph of Lincoln's letter is at once the classic statement of Lincoln's attitude towards slavery, and perhaps the best single example of his power of expressing himself with absolute clearness.

LETTER TO GENERAL JOSEPH HOOKER

787. In contrast to McClellan, who organized and planned but would not fight, "Fighting Joe Hooker" (1814-1879) was apt to fight first and do his thinking afterwards. When, after seeing McClellan and Burnside fail, Lincoln appointed him to the command of the Army of the Potomac, the President felt constrained to give his fiery subordinate some kindly counsel. The resulting letter shows Lincoln doing a difficult thing with tact but also with unmistakable firmness. The original of this letter was sold in 1924 for ten thousand dollars.

LETTER TO GENERAL U. S. GRANT

788. a. 25. The almost inestimable service. Just at the time Lee was receiving his first really serious defeat, at Gettysburg, Grant was adding to his growing fame by the capture of Vicksburg. The many letters written by Lincoln to Grant would in themselves form an interesting study. Early in the series the reader senses a new note of confidence and assurance-a note absent from the letters to McClellan and Hooker.

LETTER TO JAMES H. HACKETT

This letter to an actor occasioned Lincoln some embarrassment. With very poor taste, Hackett gave the letter to the press, and secured some "free publicity." Lincoln's critics seized on it as evidence that the President was wasting his time on trivial concerns such as literature.

ADDRESS AT THE DEDICATION OF THE GETTYSBURG CEMETERY

When it was decided to set apart a section of the Gettysburg battlefield as a national cemetery, Edward Everett was asked to make the formal address. This he did, speaking for two hours in a manner which was in keeping with the occasion, and in harmony with the "oratorical tradition" which he represented. When he had concluded, Lincoln read the three paragraphs which have become known wherever English can be understood or translations procured.

Immediately after returning to Washington Everett wrote Lincoln, saying that "I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion in two hours as you did in two minutes."

789. a. 22. Of the people, by the people, for

the people. It has been several times pointed out that Theodore Parker, in an anti-slavery address given in 1850, defined a democracy as "a government of all the people, by all the people, for all the people." See The Dial, N. Y. Oct. 25, 1917, p. 407.

MEMORANDUM

This brief prophecy of defeat at the polls, Lincoln brought to a cabinet meeting, where it was sealed, initialed by the men around the table, and filed in a drawer for future reference-all without the persons who were present being aware of its contents. The November elections showed Lincoln's prophecy to be ill-grounded. The "President-elect" referred to would have been General George McClellan.

LETTER TO MRS. BIXBY

The original of this letter is not now known to exist. On this account the authenticity of the document has at times been questioned. The entire matter was thoroughly discussed in the press during the summer of 1925, and the New York Times for August 6 and 7, 1925, contains interesting articles concerning the letter, its genuineness, and the circumstances that prompted Lincoln to write it. There still remains some doubt as to whether five or four of Mrs. Bixby's sons died in the war.

LETTER TO THURLOW WEED

790. Weed was a New York journalist and politician, a friend of Seward and Horace Greeley, and one of the most influential men in his state.

EDWARD EVERETT HALE (1822-1909)

In the eighty-seven years of Dr. Hale's life as preacher, editor, lecturer, and author, he did much that was of value to American civilization and literature, and imparted a flavor of distinction to everything that he touched. Born in Boston in 1822, graduating from Harvard in 1839, he lived most of his life within sight of the State House dome which his friend and contemporary Holmes had pronounced to be the hub of the universe. His literary work, however, was in no sense provincial, and his most famous story, The Man Without a Country, centers around a theme that is of interest wherever patriotism is esteemed a virtue.

This account of the life and death of Lieutenant Philip Nolan-a character purely imaginary, yet described so convincingly that it is hard not to believe the entire story literally true-possessed a special significance at the time it was first published. It appeared as the leading article in the Atlantic Monthly for December, 1863, and was as much a campaign document as had been some of Whittier's anti-slavery poems. It was intended to hearten those Northerners who might be in despair over the repeated failures of their armies, and to throw into disrepute the "Copperheads" who-especially in Ohio-were ad

vocating peace with disunion and dishonor. The popularity of the story was instant and worldwide. Even in the South it was reprinted and read with eagerness, and as many copies seem to have been sold in England as in America. It remains to this day one of the classics of American letters, and one of the few American short stories that seem reasonably sure of immortality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hale's work is available in a collected edition, The Works of Edward Everett Hale, Boston, 1898, 10 vols. The Man Without a Country has been many times reprinted. The best source of biographical information is The Life and Letters of Edward Everett Hale, by E. E. Hale, Jr., Boston, 1917, 2 vols.

NOTES

THE MAN WITHOUT A COUNTRY

791. b. 25. Ross burned the public buildings. On the evening of August 24, 1814, a British force commanded by Major General Robert Ross captured Washington and burned the public buildings. Ross was killed in action a few days later. b. 52. Aaron Burr. No one knows just what Burr's plans were, but in 1805 he was busy in the Southwest about those plottings which later caused his arrest and trial for treason. He was acquitted of the charge.

792. a. 50. Jefferson and the House of Virginia. Jefferson was President at the time Burr came to trial for treason. a. 52. All the possible Clarences. The reference is to George, Duke of Clarence (1449-1478), the brother of Edward IV. He was one of the many victims of the long struggle between the house of York and its various opponents, and was beheaded in February of 1478. See Shakespeare's Richard III.

795. a. 16. Hesiod. A Greek poet (ca. 750 B. C.), whose chief surviving works are the Works and Days and Theogony. a. 18. Canning. George Canning (17701827), British statesman and economist, who served as Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Governor General of India, and Prime Minister.

a. 42. The Lay of the Last Minstrel. The first of Scott's poetical romances, published in January, 1805.

796. b. 30. Lady Hamilton herself. Wife of Sir William Hamilton, a British diplomat, and for many years mistress of Lord Nelson.

797. b. 11. The Iron Mask. The reference is to a famous prisoner in the Bastile. He died in 1703, for the last thirty years of his life having worn a mask of iron. b. 13. The author of "Junius." "Junius" was the only signature appended to

a series of letters attacking the British ministry, and published in London journals between 1769 and 1772. The author was probably Sir Philip Francis, though there is still some doubt concerning the matter.

b. 18. The War. The War of 1812. 798. a. 46. He was with Porter. David Porter (1780-1843). His son was an Admiral in the Civil War.

b. 10. Our French friends. The French flag was raised on the Marquesas islands in 1842.

799. a. 20. Linnæus. Carl von Linné (17071778), a Swedish scientist who may fairly be called the father of modern botany. a. 21. John Foy the idiot. The chief character in Wordsworth's Idiot Boy. a. 39. Our slave-trade treaty. By the treaty of Ghent, which in 1814 ended the War of 1812, England and the United States covenanted to abolish the infamous "slave trade," or importation of negroes kidnapped in Africa. Middle Passage" was the name popularly given to that part of the Atlantic which lay between the West Indies and Africa.

'The

800. a. 25. The deus ex machina. Literally, "The god from the machine." "In Greek drama, when it became necessary for an actor impersonating one of the gods to appear on the scene and bring the action to a happy ending, he was lowered to the stage by machinery. 802. b. 4. The Vallandinghams and Tat

nalls. Clement Vallandingham was the "Copperhead" candidate for the governorship of Ohio in 1863. Hale intended his story to appear before the election, in the hope that it might influence the result. It was not published, however, till after the defeat of the Copperheads at the polls. Joseph Tatnall resigned his commission in the United States navy to follow his state into secession. 803. b. 50. To ask about the Chesapeake.

In 1807 the U. S. S. Chesapeake was fired upon by the British frigate Leopard, which then sent an armed boat to board the American vessel and remove four seamen claimed by the British as deserters from the English navy. This particular episode, involving the "right of search," was one of the dramatic incidents which occasioned the War of 1812.

805. a. 8. The Order of the Cincinnati. An association of officers of the American Revolutionary forces.

DAVID ROSS LOCKE (1833-1888) ("PETROLEUM V. NASBY")

Among the humorists who entertained America during the years just following the

Civil War, David Ross Locke is the one whose political satire seems at once most trenchant and most readable. Following the fashion of the hour, he adopted a picturesque pen-name, and like "Bill Arp," "Josh Billings," "Artemus Ward," and others of his contemporaries, employed a bizarre sort of spelling that represented no spoken dialect whatsoever, but lent an amusing sort of tang to his work. Despite this veneer of what might seem affectation, the Nasby Letters are genuinely humorous, and hit off with power and deftness certain aspects of the political situation following the war.

Locke first began to issue these letters in April, 1861, in the Findlay, Ohio, Jeffersonian, of which he was editor. Previous to this time he had worked as printer, reporter, and editor, on various Western journals, but had done nothing to attract attention. The personage of "Petroleum V. Nasby," however, caught the public fancy, and before long became much such a character in American letters as Finley P. Dunne's "Mr. Dooley" was to be half a century later.

After Mark Twain's Innocents Abroad (1868) had set the fashion for a new sort of "travel-book," Locke undertook a similar work, sending his character Nasby to Europe, and chronicling his adventures in a way which more than occasionally suggests Clemens's vein. But the political satire produced in the earlier days was more sincere and more timely, and it is by this that Locke will be known. He died in 1888, in Toledo, Ohio, where for many years he had been proprietor and editor of The Blade.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Locke's work is not available in any collected edition. The following titles, however, are not difficult to obtain, and are representative of his best vein: The Nasby Papers, Indianapolis, 1865; Ekkoes from Kentucky, Boston, 1867; The Impendin Crisis uv the Democracy, Toledo, 1868; Inflation at the Cross-Roads, N. Y. 1875.

NOTES

MR. NASBY FINDS A NEW BUSINESS

805. b. 24. Destroyed by Buell. During the early part of the war General D. C. Buell (1818-1898) was in command of the Federal forces in Kentucky and Ten

nessee.

806. a. 51. General Morgan. General John Hunt Morgan (1825-1864), the famous Confederate cavalry leader, one of whose raids took him as far as the suburbs of Cincinnati.

b. 21. He voted fer Micklellan and Seymour. General George B. McClellan (1826-1885), whom Lincoln had been forced twice to depose from the command of the Army of the Potomac, was

Grady was a journalist and lecturer who made it his chief task, during the mature years of his life, to help re-establish the good feeling between the North and South which the Civil War had destroyed. Born in Georgia in 1851, and educated at the University of Georgia, he served an apprenticeship as reporter for the New York Herald, and in 1880 returned to his native state as editor and part owner of the Atlanta Constitution. On the twenty-first of December, 1886, he was one of the speakers at the annual dinner of the New England Society of New York City, and took the occasion to make the remarks which bear the well-known title, The New South. The address was at once reprinted far and wide, and was of no slight influence in enabling the North and South to meet once more on terms of amity. During the three years of life that remained to him, Grady wrote and spoke extensively on the same general topic; but the New England Society address remains the best known and most influential of his works. He died in Georgia in December, 1889.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The student who wishes more of Grady's work will turn to The Complete Orations and Speeches of Henry W. Grady, ed. Edwin DuBois Shurter, Austin, Texas, 1910. For biographical information consult The Life and Labors of Henry W. Grady, Atlanta, 1890. The editions of the Atlanta Constitution for October 21 and 22, 1891, were devoted largely to articles about Grady and his work.

NOTES

THE NEW SOUTH

809. b. 48. Dr. Talmadge. Thomas DeWitt Talmadge (1832-1902), the famous and sensational Presbyterian preacher, who from 1869 to 1894 was minister of the "Brooklyn Tabernacle."

810. b. 52. "Bill Arp." The pen-name of Charles Henry Smith (1826-1903), whose humorous newspaper letters won wide popularity during the Civil War. 811. a. 10. General Sherman. The leader of the famous march through Georgia was present at the dinner as Grady was speaking.

a. 40. Mason and Dixon's line. In 1767 two surveyors, Mason and Dixon, located the boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland. This line ultimately became known as the dividing line between slavery and free-soil territory.

812. a. 3. Mr. Toombs. Robert Toombs (1810-1885), a Georgia politician. 813. b. 49. Those opposed eyes. From I Henry IV, I, 1.

BRET HARTE (1839-1902)

"Bret Harte," says Mr. Fred L. Pattee in his History of American Literature since 1870, "is the writer of the epic of the gold rush of the middle century in America, and whatever the quality of the epic may be, it can never be forgotten." The sentence sums up what is certainly the most significant fact concerning Harte's literary accomplishment. Despite his many attempts to write about themes other than the "Golden West," he is remembered today because of a sheaf of short stories in which he re-created the picturesque conditions of life which the world will always think of whether rightly or wrongly is small matter-as characteristic of California during the two decades following the discovery of gold at Sutter's mill. It was his good fortune to be in California at the time the gold rush was at its height. With the instinct of a trained and successful reporter he seized upon the most picturesque elements of that epic adventure. He heightened the contrasts which in cold fact were already sharp and dramatic, humanized the entire picture by placing in the foreground a handful of characters portrayed realistically yet sympathetically, and threw over it all a glamor of romantic sentimentalism which it is easy to tag as reminiscent of Dickens, but which none the less-in combination with the other elements referred to-won for Harte a popularity that extended to all the English-speaking world.

Curiously enough, only a brief portion of his life was spent in California. Born in 1839, in Albany, New York, where his father was a