step corresponds to solving the problem by hypothesis tested in thought or in action, or in both. The incipient reactions which have been directed to the point of difficulty are the counterparts of hypotheses and of the testing of hypotheses in the solving of a problem. The hypothesis is tested in thought, if it is tested by the immediate effects produced in the nervous system before an overt response appears. In testing the hypothesis, the teacher modifies the environment so as to give stimuli that will inhibit or strengthen the incipient reaction of the pupil at the point of obstruction.

(4) The checked reaction must be completed through the new pathway of response developed by the situation. This corresponds to using the means of control in attaining the purpose. The teacher may assist here by removing obstructions that would present difficulties complicating the reaction unnecessarily, and thus enable the pupil to overcome one difficulty at a time.

The evidence of natural science supports in a convincing way our conclusions with regard to extrinsic motivation, telling, undue emphasis upon memory work, and the confusion of appreciation and control lessons.

In the terms of natural science, extrinsic motivation means the development of reactions in response to stimuli not normally producing these reactions. In the case of extrinsic interest in reading explained above, the pupil responded to the stimuli of the teacher's voice instead of to the stimuli of other human organisms that would in turn react favorably to his reading. Training under such abnormal situations fails to make the pupil responsive, in the absence of the teacher, to the situation that normally brings the response of reading. In the degree that the situation is abnormal, the response is abnormal; and in

the degree that the response is abnormal, the meaning which parallels it is perverted.

Natural science shows that memorizing, which is the parallel of fixing reactions in the nervous system, should ordinarily be a by-product in education. It explains that reactions are fixed normally in the nervous system merely by being performed. To the extent that the individual does anything else than perform the reaction he is, of course, fixing the modified form of the reaction, which may be so different from the normal reaction as not to retain any of its essential characteristics. This is true when the organism reacts by reproducing symbols instead of by performing reactions for which these symbols stand. If the individual does not perform the reactions for which the symbols stand, he fails to acquire the true meanings of these symbols because the meaning of a thing symbolized parallels the reaction to it.

In telling, the teacher undertakes to develop connections in the nervous system of the pupil through the stimuli of words without direct evidence of just what guidance is needed for the development of the nervous system. If the pupil is stimulated to begin the reaction necessary to make the new connections which he should acquire, the teacher can discover what guidance is necessary by noting where the process of acquiring the new connections breaks down. The pupil must have assistance to overcome these difficulties, but he needs no other assistance than this. When, by the stimuli of words, the teacher undertakes to guide the development of nerve connections without knowing the breaks in the pupil's process of acquiring new connections, he is liable to omit important directions which the pupil should have. If these directions are omitted, the pupil does not acquire

the proper nerve connections and consequently does not get the proper appreciations and meanings.

According to natural science, the teacher who confuses appreciation with control subject matter uses environmental conditions provided by the curriculum in an abnormal way and therefore does not get the satisfactory results that can be secured when they are used normally.1 History and the fine arts are effective guides for modifying the pupil's nervous system in such manner that particular responses are connected with fundamental systems of reactions; but, if the teacher uses this subject matter to develop new reactions, the results are unsatisfactory, because the subject matter is not fashioned as a guide for developing new reactions. On the other hand, the sciences are effective guides for modifying the pupil's nervous system in such a manner that new reactions are acquired; but if this subject matter is used by the teacher to connect responses with fundamental systems of reactions, he uses it as a means of doing that for which it is not well adapted. The teacher obviously gets better results by using the subject matter to do that for which it is especially adapted.

REFERENCES

MOORE, E. C., What is Education? 1915, pp. 195–257. (Discusses the place of method in education and also learning by problem getting.)

DEWEY, J., Democracy and Education, 1916, pp. 193-211. (Presents the essentials of method. Valuable especially for advanced students.)

CHARTERS, W. W., Methods of Teaching, 1912. (Gives a clear explanation of methods of teaching from the functional standpoint. See table of contents for the topics discussed.)

1 Cf. pp. 195–196.

STRAYER, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, 1911. (Differentiates various types of lessons and discusses separately each type. See table of contents for the topics discussed.) FAIRCHILD, A. H. R., The Teaching of Poetry in the High School, 1914, pp. 22-69. (Gives a revised and edited transcription of a stenographic record of the teaching of Browning's poem Andrea del Sarto to a class of high school pupils. The other chapters in this book also are stimulating and enlightening.)

HAYWARD, F. H., The Lesson in Appreciation, 1915. (Gives valuable information regarding the teaching of appreciation of literature, music, and art.)

SPENCER, H., Education, Ch. III. (Gives an utilitarian discussion of moral education.)

PROBLEMS

1. Is it desirable that an elementary school teacher know the home life of her pupils? Why?

2. Make a lesson plan for teaching some particular lesson in history.

3. a. What in your judgment are the most common defects in Sunday school teaching? b. What suggestions would you make for overcoming these defects?

4. Why is it important that a teacher enjoy a poem or other work of art he is teaching to a class?

5. If a teacher believes that appreciation is an end in itself and not related to action, what is the most serious error he is liable to make in teaching poetry?

6. Should the teacher tell the class directly the moral of a story? Explain.

7. Make a lesson plan for the teaching of some poem and indicate in the plan the essential steps in the teaching of purpose-giving subject matter.

8. Make a lesson plan for the teaching of some picture and indicate in the plan the essential steps in the teaching of purpose-giving subject matter.

9. A teacher required his pupils to commit to memory the more important rules for punctuation and then dictated to them a number

of sentences to be punctuated in accordance with these rules. Criticize his method of teaching.

10. What should be the relation between classroom work and laboratory work in the teaching of some physical or biological science? 11. What is probably the main defect in the teaching of control subject matter, if the pupils seldom ask questions?

12. What fault would you find in a lesson assignment that indicates merely what pages the pupil should read in the textbook?

13. In assigning collateral reading, is it better for the teacher to ask the pupil to make an outline of what he reads or to report the important ideas in the reading that are new to him? Explain.

14. Would it be advisable for a teacher in assigning a review lesson of miscellaneous problems in arithmetic to tell the pupils the rule involved in the solution of each of the problems? Explain.

15. How would you develop in children the ability to think for themselves?

16. How would you answer the objection that, in view of the amount of work to be covered in a course, it would take too much time to give the pupil a motive for each lesson, and to lead him to make and test hypotheses in defining and solving his problems?

17. Mention some high school subject you have studied with intrinsic interest predominating and some high school subject you have studied with extrinsic interest predominating. Which subject did you the more good? Why?

18. What are the relative values of competition and coöperation as motives for study?

19. a. What is meant by socializing classroom instruction? b. How could the methods in some school with which you are acquainted be more fully socialized?

20. Make a lesson plan for the teaching of some scientific truth and indicate in the plan the essential steps in the teaching of control subject matter.

21. Explain the function of the subject matter you are preparing to teach and state the methods you should use to make it function normally in the experience of the pupils.

22. Select a chapter from some textbook in science and tell what is the problem of the chapter and what is the problem of each section and paragraph.