because of instinctive preference would study fragrant flowers and neglect offensive weeds, knowledge concerning which is very useful in the field of botany. Accordingly, the fact that the sciences organize only the secondary channels in the brain in ways that make control most effective, means on the side of consciousness that the values felt for things are disregarded when these things are considered from the strictly scientific point of view. The responses necessary to overcome checks in reactions to the same thing in the environment may be various. In opening the way for some particular system of habits to function, it may be necessary that a quantity of corn, for example, be changed to a different place, lifted against the force of gravity, used in making alcohol, or planted. These various reactions represent the points of view from which various sciences regard the object. The consideration of relative position falls within the province of mathematics; the investigation of the manifestations of gravity belongs to physics; the study of the process of making alcohol belongs to chemistry; and the phenomena of growing corn belong to biology. The isolation of each of the various classes of responses is obviously an essential step towards the effective reorganization of the responses in each class. The next essential step in the organization of secondary channels of response is the reducing of them to their simplest forms. This step reduces the number of the kinds of responses, because a few simple reactions may be united in many combinations which as wholes are very different one from another. Since ideas of the meanings of things parallel the reactions with regard to them, this analysis of responses into their simplest forms corresponds to the analysis of things into their elements. When the simplest forms of secondary channels for reaction have been isolated, the next essential step in the economical reorganization of responses is combining these simple forms in effective connections. Since reactions correspond to meanings, the economical organization of the simple channels for reaction into useful combinations corresponds to the consciousness of the ways in which elements combine; or, in other words, it corresponds to the formulation of the laws of nature. In normal development, the brain changes gradually from a less to a more organized condition; there are no breaks. Because ideas are the parallels of these brain changes, this truth is the materialistic way of explaining the fact that there is no break between the psychological and the logical classification of phenomena, if the logical classification develops in a normal way. This truth means also that the natural pathway to scientific investigation originates in the use of things for definite practical ends, since the organization of secondary channels for response is an outgrowth of the process of the adjustment of the organism to the environment, in which process both primary and secondary channels are involved. The fact that the sciences do not give insight into the real nature of things is supported by natural science, because natural science holds that the meanings of the things with which the sciences deal are parallels of the brain changes due to the responses to stimuli and not to direct impressions of outer realities upon the brain. Since the sciences organize only the secondary channels of response, and since, as we have learned, the experience, of ultimate values is relative to the primary channels, the sciences have no authority to contradict the worth 1 felt for those ultimate ideals which give, in the last analysis, significance and value to human life. REFERENCES BAGLEY, W. C., The Educative Process, 1907, pp. 161-163. (States briefly the nature of science.) MÜNSTERBERG, H., Psychology and the Teacher, 1910, pp. 27-33. (States briefly the nature of science.) THOMSON, J. A., Introduction to Science, 1911, pp. 7-248. (Discusses in a popular manner the scientific mood, the aim of science, scientific method, classification of the sciences, science and philosophy, science and art, science and religion, and the utility of science.) DEWEY, J., How We Think, 1910, pp. 56-63. (Distinguishes between the psychological and the logical.) VDEWEY, DEWEY, J., Democracy and Education, 1916, pp. 256–266. the nature of science.) (Discusses MILLER, I. E., The Psychology of Thinking, 1910, pp. 260-267. (Discusses the nature of the hypothesis in the process of induction.) JUDD, C. H., Psychology of High-School Subjects, 1915, pp. 304-317. (Discusses briefly the origin and nature of science from the point of view of the psychologist.) PEARSON, K., The Grammar of Science, 1911, pp. 39-75, 77-112. (Discusses the nature of the facts of science and of scientific law. Suitable for advanced students.) SPENCER, H., Essays — Scientific, Political, and Speculative, 1892, Vol. II, pp. 1-73, 74-117. (Discusses the genesis of science and the classification of the sciences. Suitable for advanced students.) PROBLEMS 1. Which is more reliable in determining the methods that should be used in education, science or common sense? Explain. 2. Why is it that the best books in literature are in many cases the oldest, whereas the best books in science are, comparatively speaking, the newest? 3. a. Give some instance in your school work in which you experienced a break between the psychological and the logical classi fication of subject matter. b. In this instance was the logical organization of the subject matter truly logical for you? Explain. 4. What in your judgment are the advantages, if any, of giving in the high school a course in general science introductory to the work in the special science courses? 5. In what important ways do you believe that the science courses you completed in the high school could have been improved? 6. Criticize Herbert Spencer's essay entitled What Knowledge is of Most Worth? (Spencer's Education, Ch. I.) earste much on 7. Do you believe in the moral freedom of the will, despite the conclusions of natural science with regard to this matter? Give the reasons for your answer. CHAPTER X SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Social development means the increased effectiveness of institutions, which are organized in the service of the fundamental values of life. It requires greater division of labor and greater interdependence of men. Under varying conditions, social development may be gradual, arrested, or revolutionary. The fine arts, history, and the sciences promote gradual development, which is normal. As society advances from the state of nature to that of culture, man is guided to greater personal freedom. I The purpose of this chapter is to find more definitely the nature The history of civilization reveals a long process of social development. Each generation not only inherits from earlier generations accumulated patterns for purposes and means of control, but in turn acts vicariously by adding to this inheritance and passing on to succeeding generations still richer values and easier ways for attaining them. Machinery has thus replaced handwork; democracy has replaced monarchy; the law of justice and mercy has followed the reign of arbitrary might and revenge. It is true that this improvement is made by individuals, for they are the media through which society works; but what these individuals do, depends upon their |