of theological subjects, and especially of the two grand ecclesiastical controversies,-that between the Calvinists and Arminians, and that between the Church and the Puritans. The former of these controversies related to certain abstruse metaphysical points in theology, and did not begin till the time of Charles, when, under the patronage of Laud, the views of Arminius, a Dutch divine, gradually supplanted the Calvinistic opinions which had formerly prevailed in the Church. The other controversy was waged fiercely almost from the beginning of Elizabeth's reign, and referred to the discipline and ritual of the Established Church, which were attacked by the one party as unscriptural and superstitious, and defended by the other as decent and of wholesome tendency, and, if not scriptural and apostolic, at least sanctioned by the practice of the earliest ages of Christianity. It is unnecessary to enter into a controversy which, though it led to such momentous consequences, is not generally interesting to the student of literature. It may, however, be remarked in general, that as the two parties argued upon different grounds, and as neither admitted the fundamental principles of the other, it was evident from the first that no agreement could possibly be arrived at; and, as might have been anticipated, the combatants, becoming daily more exasperated and further estranged, proceeded to physical violence; the Churchmen fined, imprisoned, and pilloried their puritanical opponents, and these in their turn retaliated with equal violence when the civil war threw the power into their hands. On the Church side the chief advocate was Hooker,-distinguished from all the other combatants, not more by the incontrovertible strength of his arguments than by his good temper and moderation,-Hall, Usher, Bramhall, Hammond, Taylor, and others; while the cause of the Puritans was maintained by Calamy, Newcomen, Young, and Marshall. On the whole, the preponderance perhaps of argument, and certainly of learning, lay with the Church party. It would be an abuse of words to apply the name literature to the senseless writings of Fox, the founder of the Quakers, or the crazy ravings of Muggleton and the other fanatics who established religious sects, and became the spiritual guides of multitudes in the era of the Commonwealth.

2. Period after the Restoration.

6. The early Puritans were remarkable for an austere moral system, which they not only practised in their lives, but exhibited in their writings, and even in their dress and amusements. This system, when they obtained power, they imposed upon all. But morality cannot be established by act of Parliament; and it was impossible that any permanent reform of morals could be effected by the system of the Puritans. It was overdone; it was more than grave and serious; it was sour and ascetic, and led naturally to a violent re-action. Success corrupted their purity; and even in Cromwell's time, an attentive reader of English history can trace the origin and gradual progress of a corruption of manners, which, getting full liberty after the Restoration, swept away religion and morality before it. Nowhere is this demoralizing process more conspicuously observable than in

the literature of the period. The writers, especially those of the lighter departments of literature, yielded without effort to the tide of corruption, and used their influence to debase the morals of the people.

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Of the poets of this period, the earliest is Waller, whose works are chiefly amatory sonnets. Cowley, the greatest of the metaphysical poets, produced his most famous work, "The Mistress," in the heat of the war; but his most popular work is his "Anacreontics," short, spirited poems, after the model of the Greek lyrist, from whom they receive their name. His "Davideis," an unfinished epic poem, is heavy and uninteresting, yet it contains many passages which Milton has not disdained to imitate in his great poem. It was after the restoration that Milton wrote his longest poems, "Paradise Lost" and Paradise Regained." The former published in 1667 is beyond all question the greatest epic poem in the language. The subject is the noblest which any poet has undertaken to celebrate, and no poet was better qualified than Milton to do justice to it; his piety, his loftiness of thought, his vivid imagination, the dignity and beauty of his language, and his thorough acquaintance with Scripture, pre-eminently fitted him for his work. The merits of "Paradise Lost" were acknowledged, from the very first, and its right to occupy the highest place in our poetic literature has never been disputed. Paradise Regained," while it contains many splendid passages worthy of the genius of Milton, must, in its general conception, be considered as a failure; for Paradise was not regained by Christ's successful resistance of the assaults of Satan in the wilderness, but by that glorious victory on the cross which the poet has left altogether unsung. "Samson Agonistes," written in imitation of the ancient drama, possesses many beauties, but has little merit as a dramatic production. Samuel Butler, a contemporary of Milton, has given to the world, in his "Hudibras," the wittiest of all poems. His work is a satire upon the absurdities and extravagances exhibited during the reign of the Puritans, and is an inexhaustible repository of wit, humour, and sarcasm; the very superabundance of its wit is perhaps its only fault, as the reader is almost overborne by the exuberance of the author's too copious fancy. Next to Milton, Dryden is the greatest name in the poetical literature of this period. In forcible expression and vigorous versification, he has, indeed, never been surpassed in our country, and had he used his influence honestly, he might perhaps have stemmed the torrent of that vicious and fantastic style which overflowed the country after the Restoration. But Dryden was poor, and wealth was to be acquired only by complying with the fashionable style; and disregarding all the restraints of modesty and the dictates of his own better nature, he flattered to the full the vices of the day, and much of his poetry is in consequence a disgrace to our literature. This applies especially to his dramatic works, which constitute the largest portion of his writings, and which have few excellences to compensate their want of moral purity; for Dryden had no peculiar qualifications for dramatic composition, and only practised it as it was then the best remunerated. Of his poems, his "Fables," "Tales from Chaucer," "Absalom and Achitophel," "MacFlecnoe," and "Ode for St Cecilia's Day," are the most admired, and amply justify his title to be considered as one

of the great masters of English verse. Of the other versifiers of the period it is unnecessary to speak; Lords Dorset, Roscommon, Halifax, and Rochester, and the other minor poets, after enjoying a brief reputation, are now almost forgotten. The same oblivion has overtaken most of the dramatic productions of this age; indecent, unnatural, un-English, and recommended only by their vice, rodomontade, and extravagance, they have passed away with the generation which produced and applauded them. Of the tragic literature of the period, the "Venice Preserved" of Otway is the only play that still maintains its existence. The comedies of Wycherley possess much comic merit, which is, however, completely overbalanced by his gross licenti

ousness.

7. The theological literature of the period is copious and valuable, and much less tinctured with the false taste which pervades the style of other departments of literature. The old theological controversies between the Church and the Puritans still prevailed, and to these were now. added disputes between Protestants and Roman Catholics, and arguments for and against the doctrines of non-resistance and passive obedience, and the principles of the non-jurors. No theological writer, indeed, of this age can be compared to Hooker, Taylor, or Hall, in the preceding; but a greater approach was made by the divines than by any other class of writers to the glories of the period before the civil war. Among the Churchmen, the earliest of note was Isaac Barrow, distinguished alike as a divine and a mathematician. His "Treatise on the Pope's Supremacy" is an admirable controversial work; and his sermons, though disfigured by an affectation of new words, are full of thought, and rich in sound, eloquent advice. Tillotson, Archbishop of Canterbury, a man of most estimable character, was also the most famous preacher of his day; and his sermons were long considered the models of pulpit eloquence, though now, when our older literature is better known, and a more vehement style of oratory is in vogue, their popularity has somewhat declined. Stillingfleet, Bishop of Worcester, is one of the most acute and forcible reasoners in the language; Sherlock is well known by his eloquent treatise on "Death;" and the sermons of South, though not particularly evangelical in their character, yet display such power of wit, such knowledge of character, and such command of language, combined sometimes with eloquence of the very highest order, that they are deservedly reckoned inferior to none that our country has produced. Of the other theologians of the Church party, the best known are Wilkins, Sprat, Pearson, Thomas Burnet, More, Cudworth, Prideaux, Aldrich, Collier, Patrick, Beveridge, Sharp, Bull, and Bishop Burnet; many of them men of great ability and extensive learning, whose works are still highly valued by the theological student. Of the Dissenters who flourished at this period, the most famous was Richard Baxter, one of the most voluminous writers in the language. He was a man of great ability, estimable in his character, and moderate in his views; and his works, though inferior to those of the great Church divines of the age, are distinguished by an earnestness and piety which have secured for them an extensive popularity. John Owen, President of Christ Church, Oxford, during the Commonwealth, was much more learned than Baxter, but his works have never been very popular. In fact,

with the exception of one or two minor treatises, his works are emin ently unreadable, and this not only from the nature of their subjects, and the heavy mode of treating them, but from the total disregard of all the graces of style, which, Owen carefully informs us, he avoided and despised upon principle. Bates, Calamy, and Howe, men of considerable repute in their own day, and possessing much merit, are now fallen into oblivion, which, except in reference to some fragments of their works, only a few courageous readers disturb; but the commentary of Matthew Henry is still popular with those whose object in consulting such a work is to find merely a plain practical exposition of the doctrines of Scripture. Poole, by his learned "Synopsis," entitles himself to rank with Walton, Castell, and Lightfoot, the great scholars at that time in the ranks of the Church. But the most distinguished of all the dissenters was John Bunyan, the immortal tinker of Elstow, known over the whole civilized world, and even beyond it, as the author of the "Pilgrim's Progress." Whatever might have been the case last century, when a false and artificial taste was predominant, it is not now, at all events, necessary to apologize for referring to so vulgar an author; nor will any minor imperfections in his work deduct from the praise justly due to the most able allegory of which our literature can boast.

8. Among the historians of this age the highest place is occupied by Lord Clarendon, whose "History of the Rebellion" is in all respects one of the most valuable books in our language. Clarendon was a distinguished member of the Long Parliament, and was in almost constant attendance upon Charles during the progress of hostilities, so that he had abundant opportunities of becoming acquainted with the whole course of events. Subsequent criticism has discovered inconsistencies and imperfections in his narrative, though the importance of these has been considerably overrated. His work is, however, written with strong Royalist opinions, though this should not mislead any reader, as Clarendon does not pretend to impartiality, but distinctly avows that he writes with the view of justifying as far as possible the conduct of the king. Independently of its historical merits, its able reasoning and admirable delineation of character entitle the book to very high commendation. Clarendon wrote also a history of his own life, which forms a valuable continuation of the history of the civil The only other great historical name of the period is Bishop Burnet, whose "History of the Reformation in England" is still the standard work on that subject. His "History of My Own Times contains a narrative of events from the Restoration to the peace of Utrecht, and possesses great value from the author's personal concern in many of the most important transactions, and personal acquaintance with most of the actors. Not much can be said in praise of Burnet's style, which is neither elegant nor vigorous; and, as he is even a more violent partisan than Clarendon, and was impressed with an extraordinary opinion of his own importance, his accuracy has been sometimes called in question. In addition to the professed historians of the period, various memoirs and diaries which have been preserved furnish the historical student with valuable information, especially in reference to matters of domestic detail, and the secret springs which led to many important events, subjects which graver authors too often

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overlook. The most valuable works of this sort are the "Memoirs of Colonel Hutchinson," and the Diaries of Evelyn and Pepys.

9. Of the miscellaneous prose writers, Cowley has left a few essays on various subjects, and a "Discourse on Cromwell," written with unusual vigour and grace. Algernon Sidney wrote some political tracts, recommending his own views of government. Sir William Temple, the famous statesman, wrote a number of essays on a great variety of subjects, exhibiting considerable acuteness of reasoning and power of observation, in a singularly graceful and harmonious style. Of scientific writers, Wilkins, Thomas Burnet, Ray, and Boyle are entitled to favourable notice, and are still known to fame, though they have been eclipsed by the renown of Barrow and Newton, the greatest names in the scientific annals of our country. Of the cultivators of mental philosophy Locke is the most distinguished, and his "Essay on the Human Understanding" still exercises a most important influence on philosophical speculation, both in Britain and elsewhere. Cudworth, an able and learned writer on morals, has been more appreciated on the Continent than in his own country, where his "Intellectual System" is seldom read; and of the numerous host of authors who combated the moral dogmas of Hobbes, and obtained at the time a larger or smaller share of public applause, only a few are known even by name to well-informed readers. Dryden, in the preface to his poetical works, laid the foundation of the art of poetical criticism, and his critical canons are so just as to render all the more flagrant and inexcusable his wide departure from them. To the antiquarian the names of Dugdale, Wood, and Rymer, who flourished at this era, are familiar as "household words;" and their works, the 'Baronage and Monasteries of England," the "Athenæ Oxonienses," and the "Fœdera," are valuable repositories of information. Newspapers, too, may be considered as taking their origin at this period. They had, indeed, during the civil war been issued by the different parties, with the view of disseminating their own peculiar opinions; but they appeared only occasionally, and at irregular intervals; and it was not till the time of the Revolution that they began to be of importance in the country. Their increased importance was in a great measure due to the enterprise of Roger L'Estrange.

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10. The contributions to literature by Scottish authors during this period were both few and of comparatively little value. In poetry the highest name is that of Drummond of Hawthornden, whose poems, particularly his sonnets, are written in the style of Spenser; and, though somewhat deficient in vigour, are characterized by gracefulness in thought and beauty of language. No other poet of this era is now generally known, though Sir Robert Ayton, Hume of Logie, the Earl of Stirling, and James VI., not to mention others, wrote minor poems of some merit; those of Ayton, indeed, were commended by Dryden as among the best of the age. Latin poetry was still cultivated, especially by Arthur Johnston, a native of Aberdeenshire, whose Latin version of the Psalms is by some critics preferred to that of Buchanan. The prose literature of the period, notwithstanding the ceaseless theological and political contests, which might have been expected to call forth at least controversial talents, is not of much value. Buchanan wrote a political tract which has sometimes found